Sexual Assault Situations Research Articles

Reaching Conservative Students in Bystander Training Against Sexual Assault: Teaching Pros & Bros

Humane Acts Bystander Intervention Training curriculum (HABIT) aims to reach students less inclined to learn from liberal and more-feminist education offered in current curricula. Using moral foundations theory to encourage bystander intervention in potential sexual assault situations, the authors taught and assessed 137 diverse students within an urban university’s First Year Seminar course. Results indicated the curriculum improved the inclination to intervene in those deemed least likely to intervene.

Prediction of Bystander Intervention Behavior in a Sexual Assault Situation: The Role of Religiosity, Empathy, and Gratitude

Bystander intervention in potential sexual assault situations is a common method of helping to address sexual violence on college campuses. Although numerous variables have been shown to mediate bystander intervention behavior, the pool of potential correlates is limited. The present study used regression analysis to determine the relationship between bystander behavior and three predictors: religiosity, gratitude, and victim empathy. Consistent with prior research, both religiosity and gratitude significantly predicted bystander behavior. Contrary to prior research, the relationship between victim empathy and bystander behavior was negative. Findings are discussed relating to potential bystander intervention programs, and future research, particularly on gratitude, is suggested.

Preliminary evidence of promise of a sexual violence risk reduction intervention for female students in South African tertiary education institutions

ABSTRACT Campus sexual violence risk reduction and resistance interventions have been developed and tested among female students in the global North and proven effective. Evidence-based interventions to prevent sexual violence tested amongst female students in the global South and in South African campuses are lacking. We present preliminary evidence of promise of Ntombi Vimbela! (NV!), a sexual violence prevention intervention piloted amongst first year female students in eight purposively selected campuses in South Africa. Focus group discussions were conducted with 118 female students who participated in NV! workshops. Most students found the content of NV! relevant and reported having experienced its positive effects. They perceived that NV! empowered them with skills to assess and deal with sexual assault risky situations. NV! changed their attitudes and beliefs about gender, shifted their acceptance of rape myths and beliefs, improved communication skills, enhanced self-esteem, and confidence to defend oneself in risky sexual assault situations. Few participants were unsure whether they will be able to use the skill in real life. These findings indicate a range of short-term positive outcomes which we anticipate would reduce the risk of sexual assault among first year female students. This suggests that NV! should be subject to further evaluation.

Moral motivations of bystanders in potential sexual assault situations

ABSTRACT Sexual assault on college campuses has become a major concern. A common response has been to provide bystander intervention training, which research shows may provide short-term attitude change without reducing the number of assaults. Current curricula and research may neglect the very factors that could play a part in students’ desire and ability to intervene, one of which may be moral motivations. For this qualitative study, we interviewed students (n = 38) who identified as having been bystanders to a ‘sketchy sexual situation’ to understand, from a moral perspective, their decisions to intervene or not. In exploring narratives, we used Moral Foundation Theory to categorize the moral reasoning of participants and explore the voices and motivations that adhere to these categories. Through a thematic/discourse analysis we identified additional discourses. Implications for changes to bystander intervention training are discussed.

Bystander Intoxication and Appraisal of Sexual Assault Risk: A Field Study of Emerging Adult Bargoers.

Emerging adults are especially vulnerable to experiencing alcohol-related sexual assault. While bystanders play a critical role in preventing sexual assault, little is known about how bystander alcohol intoxication affects the intervention process-particularly in naturalistic settings. We recruited 315 emerging adult bargoers ages 21-29 (46% women; 28% non-college attending; 81% White) from a high-density bar area to provide responses to a sexual assault vignette and complete a breath alcohol concentration test. In this field-based study, we found a negative direct association between intoxication and appraisal of risk in the hypothetical sexual assault situation. We also found a negative indirect relation of intoxication on perceptions of personal responsibility to intervene and confidence in the ability to intervene, statistically mediated through reduced risk appraisal. Findings add to the limited literature in laboratory-based settings suggesting that bystander intoxication interferes with sexual assault intervention and help inform effective bystander intervention programming for emerging adults.

Alcohol's Effects on Bystander Intervention Strategies to Prevent Sexual Assault.

Alcohol's effects on bystander responses to potential sexual assault situations are understudied. In this mixed-methods study, we examined quality of bystander responses in intoxicated versus sober people. Participants were 121 young adults (ages 21-29, 50% female) randomly assigned to consume alcoholic beverages or soda water. After drinking, participants listened to a sexual assault vignette and completed a semistructured interview assessing how they would respond if they had witnessed the situation. Nearly all participants reported they would directly intervene if faced with the situation. Intoxicated participants and men were significantly less likely to use high-quality bystander intervention strategies than were sober participants and women. Results suggest that alcohol intoxication may negatively impact the likelihood that bystander intervention efforts will be helpful.

Bystander Intervention Opportunities and Prosocial Behaviors Among Gender and Sexual Minority College Students.

Bystander intervention education has proliferated as a popular strategy to address campus interpersonal violence, including intimate partner and sexual violence, which remain major public health concerns. Much of the work on bystander engagement, however, is cis- and heteronormative (i.e., centered on those individuals whose gender identity aligns with their biological sex at birth and/or who identify as heterosexual), thus failing to capture the experiences of students who identify as gender or sexual minorities (GSM), a population at increased risk for interpersonal violence. Research has demonstrated that cisgender females face an increased likelihood of victimization, which is related to greater awareness of intimate partner and sexual violence and results in more prosocial intentions and prosocial behaviors. The question remains whether this extends beyond cisgender females. The current study is a secondary analysis of data collected in a web-based sexual assault prevention course designed for undergraduate students and implemented at their respective institutions. Data from 474,395 undergraduate students, aged 18-23 years, were used to answer the research question. Results indicate that students' bystander intervention opportunities and prosocial behaviors differ based on GSM status. For example, although cisgender bisexual women, transwomen, and genderqueer/gender nonconforming (GNC) students were more likely to report having the opportunity to intervene in sexual assault situations, relative to cisgender heterosexual women, the latter two groups were less likely to intervene. Further, cisgender gay and bisexual men, as well as transmen and genderqueer/GNC students were more likely to report having the opportunity to intervene in dating abuse situations, relative to cisgender heterosexual men, and cisgender gay men were more likely to report having intervened. Given the call for centering research on minoritized student experiences, this research is a vital step toward recognizing the diversity of those experiences for GSM students, a population at risk for victimization.

Sexual Violence at Christian and Secular Universities: Does Institutional Type Matter?

Sexual violence is a persistent problem on the college campus. One method of addressing sexual violence is to endorse bystander intervention, whereby students are encouraged to interrupt potential sexual assault situations. Although initial research indicates that the Christian college campus provides a cultural context where fewer acts of sexual violence are committed, nothing is known about whether students on such campuses are more or less likely to intervene as a bystander. Five research questions were addressed in this study, which involved asking 851 students who attended three Christian institutions and one secular university to complete self-report surveys about their sexual assault and bystander intervention experiences. The responses indicated that violence was less common at the Christian colleges than at the secular institution. We also found that both men and women are more willing to intervene to prevent sexual violence at Christian campuses than on the secular campus. Implications of these and other results are discussed.

Bartenders and Customers’ Interactions. Influence on Sexual Assaults in Nightlife

Nightlife establishments are meeting points for what the scientific literature has called “hookups” or “one-night stands”—that is, uncommitted sexual relationships that can sometimes result in unwanted or even violent experiences. The scientific literature has identified that sexual assault has usually been connected with alcohol abuse. Other studies have found that nightlife staff can be an active or passive party to violent events (sexual or otherwise), especially bouncers. However, less attention has been paid to bartenders, and their involvement in such events has not been analyzed in depth. This article presents an exploration of how some male bartenders interact with some male customers in the nightlife context to promote sexual relationships and how their interactions might influence possible sexual assault situations. The results of this study shed light on and help us to understand why sexual assault occurs in these spaces.

Sexual Assault Prevention: A Randomized Control Trial of a Standard Military Intervention and a Motivational Interview Enhancement.

Despite increased efforts to prevent sexual assault in military environments, the problem continues at an alarming rate. Sexual assault prevention programs (SAPP) attempt to respond to this issue, yet little is known about their effectiveness within a military environment. This randomized controlled trial examined the potential efficacy of the 2015 United States Air Force (USAF) SAPP compared to that same program with an additional motivational interviewing (MI) enhancement. The MI enhancement involved both self-guided and group discussions designed to elicit change talk toward preventing sexual assault through bystander interventions. Research questions included the general efficacy of the USAF's SAPP in shifting factors linked to sexual assault, specifically participants' endorsement of beliefs associated with sexual assault, beliefs eceived the pretest via e-mailabout intervening as a bystander when confronted with a hypothetical sexual assault situation, and participants' reported willingness to intervene to stop a sexual assault. Fifty-one college students participated, of whom 64% had a history of military involvement. Primary outcome measures included bystanders' willingness and confidence to intervene as well as indicators of rape myth acceptance. Participants in the standard USAF SAPP showed no significant change in willingness or confidence to intervene as bystanders from pretest to posttest. By contrast, those who received a relatively short MI enhancement showed statistically significant increases in their willingness to intervene as bystanders. Neither group showed changes in sexual assault myths. Enhancing SAPPs with a motivational enhancement effort seems justified, especially given the relative low resources involved in introducing such a program.

Viewers’ Perceptions of Objectified Images of Women in Alcohol Advertisements and Their Intentions to Intervene in Alcohol-Facilitated Sexual Assault Situations

Alcohol-facilitated sexual assault is a serious problem on college campuses, and bystander intervention has been shown to be a successful method in reducing sexual assaults. Although there are a number of factors associated with individuals’ intentions to intervene in sexual assault situations, the media’s cultural scripts that link alcohol consumption to sexual success may play a role. Alcohol advertisements, in particular, routinely portray women as sexual objects and often link alcohol consumption to sexual success; therefore, exposure to such content may be negatively associated with people’s intentions to intervene in alcohol-facilitated sexual assault situations. Thus, the current study investigated if exposure to and perceptions of objectified images of women in alcoholic beverage advertisements were associated with college students’ intentions to intervene in alcohol-facilitated sexual assault situations. Undergraduate college students (N = 1208) were randomly assigned to view three alcohol advertisements that either included highly-objectified or low-objectified women, and then they reported their perceptions of the women in each of the alcohol advertisements and their intentions to intervene in sexual assault situations. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that individuals’ perceptions of alcohol advertisements moderate the relationship between exposure to objectifying alcohol advertisements and intentions to intervene in sexual assault situations.

Issues and Trends in Higher Education Health

ABSTRACTPublic speculation about bioterrorism and the increasing obesity epidemic are examples of current public health issues that continue to be illuminated in the spotlight. Major public health threats continue to drive the health job market and impact higher education health curricula (e.g., public health, health promotion, community health). Also, higher education institutions are dealing with more campus health-related challenges than ever before, thus driving a major focus on lowering risk with initiatives such as combating increasing mental health issues, drug abuse, sexual assault, and possible active shooter situations, among others. The current landscape of higher education academic health programs is changing due to a scarcity of funding and national focus on possible threats. Trends in degree offerings, effects of technological changes, possible solutions to current higher education health challenges, and a future forecast of higher education health are discussed.

The Willingness of College Students to Intervene in Sexual Assault Situations: Attitude and Behavior Differences by Gender, Race, Age, and Community of Origin

Abstract Recent research has examined how university students' characteristics affect their bystander intervention attitudes in sexual assault situations. This article examines how gender, age, and race interact to affect violence myths acceptance, empathy, bystander efficacy, intention to intervene, and bystander behaviors. We add to this literature a consideration of the effect of a student's community of origin—either rural or urban. Similar to previous research, we found a direct effect of gender on violence myths and empathy as well as bystander attitudes. Unlike previous research, we found that older students (over age 21 years) endorsed fewer rape myths, had more empathy, perceived benefits to intervention outweighing the costs, and had better bystander attitudes. Although there was no direct effect of race and community of origin on these outcomes, there were several interesting interactions. Age and gender interacted such that traditional-aged female students reported more bystander behaviors tha...

Male Rape Myths, Female Rape Myths, and Intent to Intervene as a Bystander

Abstract The bystander approach to sexual assault prevention has become popular on college campuses and within the military. Previous research has identified a negative association between the acceptance of rape myths and the likelihood of individuals intervening in a sexual assault situation. However, to date, all examinations of rape myth acceptance (RMA) and bystander intervention have focused on female rape myths (i.e., myths about rape involving a female victim). The current study explored whether male RMA (i.e., acceptance of myths about rape involving a male victim) influences bystander intervention in similar or differing ways compared with female RMA. In addition, the study explored whether male and female RMA function differently by subtypes of bystander intervention (i.e., known victim vs. stranger victim) and bystander gender. Participants included 970 students (731 men, 239 women) entering the United States Naval Academy. Participants completed the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale—Short Fo...

When Will Students Intervene? Differences in Students' Intent to Intervene in a Spectrum of Sexual Assault Situations

Abstract The recent shift in sexual assault prevention programming aims to engage college students as prosocial bystanders. Bystanders to sexual assault have the opportunity to make a positive impact on the incidence of sexual assault on the college campus, in addition to reducing the harm of one that has already occurred. Given the spectrum of sexual assault situations students have the opportunity to witness, it is important to know how students' intent to intervene varies between the different prosocial bystander behaviors. A sample of 815 undergraduate students completed the Sexual Assault Bystander Behavior Questionnaire in the fall of 2014. Students reported significantly greater intent to intervene with the potential or actual victim compared to the potential or actual perpetrator. Females reported significantly greater intent to intervene with both the potential or actual victims and perpetrators compared to males. Both males and females reported the greatest intent to perform postassault interven...

Women's drinking decisions in sexually risky situations: Effects of a low level of intoxication

IntroductionAlcohol administration studies assessing alcohol's deleterious effects on women's threat perception and response in potential sexual assault situations usually employ a moderate to high dose (.07% BAC or more) and measure alcohol's effects specifically on women's sexual decisions. The current study used a low dose (.03%, equivalent to about 1–2 drinks) to assess women's projected decisions on a different risky behavior: decisions to continue drinking and to drink higher amounts in a series of ecologically-valid sexual risk situations. MethodsYoung adult women (n=17; M age=21.8, SD=1.3, range 21–25) participated in a three-session double-blind within subjects 2 (type of scenario)×3( beverage) experiment, responding each time to 6 vignettes with an attractive man who was either Familiar or had Just Met her. In each session participants consumed a beverage (alcohol, placebo or water, random order) and projected emotional reactions and drinking decisions (likelihood and amount) in each of the 6 scenarios. ResultsRegardless of beverage, women predicted greater happiness, drinking likelihood, and drinking amount with “Familiar” men. However, there was also an interaction: they projected increased subsequent amounts in the .03% BAC (vs. water and placebo) condition differentially in the “Familiar” scenarios. ConclusionWhen the woman is Familiar with the man in a risky sexual situation, just one drink may increase subsequent projected alcohol amount over that originally intended. Implications include a low dose as a possible prime for more drinking, increasing sexual assault risk.

The Effects of Sports Media Exposure on College Students' Rape Myth Beliefs and Intentions to Intervene in a Sexual Assault

An online survey was fielded to freshmen living in residence halls at a northwestern university in the United States. Structural equation modeling was used to investigate the structure of relationships among exposure to mainstream sports media, rape myth acceptance, and intentions to intervene in sexual assault situations while controlling for gender traits. Given that prior research suggests men and women differ in their beliefs about sexual assault, analyses were performed on male (n = 111) and female (n = 241) respondents separately. Among women, exposure to sports media was positively associated with rape myth acceptance, which in turn was negatively associated with intentions to intervene in sexual assault situations. Among men, consuming sports media was negatively associated with intentions to intervene in a sexual assault. The findings suggest that exposure to some sports media may be negatively associated to individuals' intentions to intervene in a sexual assault.

Sorority Women’s and Fraternity Men’s Rape Myth Acceptance and Bystander Intervention Attitudes

Sorority women and fraternity men are more likely than other students to be survivors and perpetrators of sexual assault, respectively. The present study examined sorority and fraternity members’ rape myth acceptance, bystander efficacy, and bystander willingness to help in potential sexual assault situations. Sorority women were more rejecting of rape myths and were more willing to intervene than fraternity men. However, no difference in bystander efficacy was found. Implications of this contrast are discussed.

Effect of information about sexual assault presentation specificities on female students’ attitude towards sexual assault

The aim of the study was to determine the effect of the characteristics of a rapist and a victim on the sexual assault assessment of female students. 200 respondents participated in the research. 43.5% of them were 1st year, 52.0% – 2nd year, 3.5% – 3rd year, and 1st–4th year female students of the Vytautas Magnus University. Their average age was 19.89 years (SD 1.009). The respondents have been presented with a research instrument composed of demographic questions, sexual assault scenarios of A. Wilkinson (8 versions), and questions related to the sexual assault scenarios. Each scenario was followed by five scales: Behavioral Blame (BB), Character Blame (CB), Punishment (P), Victim Reporting (VR), and Reporting (R). Each scale consisted of three questions, and responses were obtained on a 7-point Likert scale. All scenarios contain an identical sexual assault situation. However, three characteristics are manipulated with: 1) the victim is acquainted/unacquainted with the rapist, 2) the victim is sober / under the influence, 3) the sexual assault is defined by the term of rape / unwanted sex. The results of the research show that victims of sexual assault are assessed unequally. It has been found that sexual assault victims are blamed for their behavior as being more provocative for the sexual assault when they know the rapist (β = –0.412; p = 0.0001) and the term “unwanted sex” is used (β = 0.173; p < 0.009) in comparison with the situation when the rapist is a stranger and the assault is defined as “a rape”. Similarly, sexual assault victims are blamed for their character as being more responsible for the sexual assault when they know the rapist (β = -0.156; p = 0.024), and the term “unwanted sex” is used (β = 0.246; p = 0.001) in comparison with the situation when the rapist is a stranger and the assault is defined as “a rape”. However, the fact that the victim has consumed / not consumed alcohol does not have a significant effect on her blame (p > 0.05). Also, it has been found that the rapist is more responsible and deserving a stricter punishment, when the term “rape” is used, in comparison with the term “unwanted sex” (β = –0.363; p < 0.0001), and this issue has a more significant effect than the victim’s relation with the rapist (β = 0.285; p < 0.0001) or the victim’s condition (consumed / not consumed alcohol) (p < 0.05). Lastly, respondents think that the victim tends to report sexual assault more often when the term “rape” is used (β = –0.330; p < 0.0001) and the rapist is unacquainted with the victim (β = 0.203; p = 0.002). Also, respondents hypothetically think that they personally would report about a sexual assault more often when they would be sober (β = 0.150; p = 0.033), they would not know the rapist (β = 0.157; p = 0.023), and the term “rape” would use (β = –0.232; p = 0.001). Additionally, respondents' demographic characteristics (the year of study and the study field) were not significant predictors of their attitudes towards sexual assault (p < 0.05).

Health Promotion Messages in Entertainment Media: Crime Drama Viewership and Intentions to Intervene in a Sexual Assault Situation

Popular crime dramas have tackled sensitive issues such as sexual assault with increasing frequency over the past 20 years. These popular programs increasingly demonstrate the emotional and physical effect of sexual assault on its victims, and in some instances they depict individuals being rewarded for intervening to prevent or stop an assault in progress. It is possible that this content could affect attitudes related to sexual assault prevention. However, no previous research has examined this possibility. In the fall 2008 semester, 508 undergraduates at a large northwestern university completed a questionnaire about media use and bystander intervention in a sexual assault situation. Results from hierarchical regressions lend support for the integrative model of behavioral prediction in that instrumentality, rape myth acceptance, perceived social norms, perceived efficacy related to intervening, and exposure to primetime crime dramas were associated with participants' intentions to intervene in a sexual assault. The results suggest that crime dramas may be a useful venue for prevention messages as exposure to crime dramas uniquely contributed to intentions to intervene in a sexual assault.