While previous studies have focused on how contextual elements influence reading, our research adopts a novel approach to the dynamic interaction between words and their context. Using eye movements during naturalistic Serbian sentence reading, we analyzed how both morphological and semantic information carried by consecutive nouns in a sentence impact reading behavior. We considered a broad range of potential predictors, categorized as either benchmark (word length and frequency), paradigmatic (relative entropy, letter-triplet activation, and competition), or syntagmatic (cosine similarity, contextual similarity, and typicality) to predict four eye movement measures: landing position, first fixation duration, total fixation duration, and average pupil size. A multivariate statistical model that enabled simultaneous testing of multiple predictors against several dependent variables revealed a complex interaction among word properties within context. While previously identified predictors such as length and frequency come out strong, our approach reveals the relational nature of word- and context-specific effects and brings out how both paradigmatic and syntagmatic information shapes language processing. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

ABSTRACT This study examined the cross-linguistic interactions of voiceless sibilants produced by multilingual speakers of Polish, English and Norwegian. The three languages divide their respective articulatory-acoustic space in three slightly different ways. We investigate the impact of English and Norwegian proficiencies on the center of gravity (CoG) of sibilants in read speech. Participants included 38 L1 Polish–L2 English–L3 Norwegian learners, and 10 L1 Norwegian–L2 English controls. Speech production data was obtained via an ordered language block paradigm (Norwegian > English > Polish), with language mode primed prior to sentence reading tasks using language-specific story retelling tasks. Linear mixed effects modelling revealed that the learners formed separate categories for phonemes sharing a place of articulation across languages. Various patterns of CLI were attested, with evidence of L1→L3 CLI and some evidence of L3→L2 CLI. There was orthographic interference in L3 Norwegian production for the three graphemes corresponding with Norwegian /ʂ/ (<rs>, <sj>, <skj>), particularly in the topmost L3 Norwegian proficiency group. Interestingly, Norwegian controls produced L1 Norwegian /ʂ/ with a higher CoG than expected for a retroflex postalveolar, putting into question the retroflex characteristics of Norwegian /ʂ/.

We investigated the extent to which different aspects of home literacy environment (HLE) relate to literacy skills among Grade 2 students in Lithuania. The participants were Lithuanian second-graders (n = 522; 48% girls; Mage = 8.29 years, SD = .32) and their parents (88.3% mothers). Children were tested in their language and literacy skills; whereas parents completed questionnaires concerning HLE. We ran three hierarchical regression models to predict children’s sentence reading fluency, spelling to dictation, and reading comprehension. Control variables (parental education, child gender, vocabulary and word reading fluency) were entered at the first step; the four variables of HLE (teaching of literacy, reading to a child, access to literacy resources, child’s own independent reading) were entered at the second step. The results showed that HLE variables added a significant amount of explained variance to the regression models (5.4% for sentence reading fluency, 4.8% for spelling, and 4.9% for reading comprehension). Overall, the results suggest that in order to promote children’s literacy skills in Grade 2 most effectively, parents should provide access to literacy resources and create opportunities for children’s independent reading. When considering all HLE factors together in one analysis, children’s actual independent reading of the reading materials emerged as an important factor in their success in reading and spelling.

In the present study, we asked a simple question: Can transposed-phoneme effects, previously found with nonwords presented in isolation, be observed when the transposed-phoneme nonwords are embedded in a sequence of spoken words that, apart from the transposed-phoneme nonwords, formed a correct sentence? The results are clear-cut. We found no evidence for a transposed-phoneme effect during spoken sentence processing either in a nonword detection task (Experiments 1-3) or in a correct/incorrect decision task (Experiment 4), where "correctness" could either concern individual words (i.e., the presence of a nonword in the sequence) or the entire sequence (i.e., a grammatical decision). Hence, the presence of nonwords in spoken sentences was not harder to detect whether they were created by transposing (e.g., /ʃoloka/) or substituting (e.g., /ʃoropa/) two consonants in the corresponding base-words (e.g., /ʃokola/ chocolat "chocolate"). In contrast, a robust transposed-letter effect was observed during sentence reading (Experiment 5), using the same word/nonword sequences and the same correct/incorrect decision task as in Experiment 4. We discuss the possibility that the greater seriality imposed by spoken sentences in the processing of spoken words leads to a more precise encoding of phoneme order, thus cancelling the transposed-phoneme effect. Sentence reading, on the other hand, would involve more parallel processing, hence the robust transposed-letter effect found with written sentences.

ABSTRACT This study investigated whether embodied simulation contributes to second language (L2) sentence comprehension, and how temporal sentence structures modulate it when physical constraints are present. Chinese learners of English read sentences with “while” or “after” describing manual actions performed either simultaneously or sequentially. Behaviourally, “while” sentences were rated as less sensible, possibly reflecting greater difficulty in understanding them. ERP analyses showed a stronger frontal Recognition Potential (RP)–an early ERP component associated with early semantic access – for “after” sentences, which may indicate relatively easier recognition and semantic processing of sequential actions. Time-frequency analyses revealed increased midfrontal theta power for “while” sentences, suggesting greater cognitive conflict when simulating simultaneous actions under physical constraints. In contrast, mu rhythm activity did not differ between sentence types, indicating comparable levels of motor system engagement. These findings suggest a dissociation between cognitive control and sensorimotor simulation in L2 embodied language processing.

The lexicalization of emojis reflects the dynamic evolutionary characteristics of the linguistic symbol system in the digital age. The influence of usage frequency and the different functions of emojis in sentences on this process is also a research topic worthy of exploration. This study employed eye-tracking technology, with 98 native Chinese speakers as participants, and selected Chinese sentences as experimental stimuli to compare the processing differences of emojis with different frequencies (high frequency and low frequency) and different functions in sentences (Pro-text emojis, Co-text emojis, and words) during sentence reading. The research results show that: Significantly affects the first fixation duration and total fixation duration. High frequency emojis have shorter durations for these two indicators; in contrast, low-frequency emojis require more time for recognition and integration due to visual and semantic factors. Pro-text emojis have a longer fixation duration, while Co-text emojis have a shorter total fixation duration. In the integration stage, Pro-text emojis take longer to integrate. This difference is related to the unique cognitive pattern of emojis, which requires converting images into linguistic components before integrating them into sentences for comprehension. Co-text emojis, on the other hand, take less time, which may be attributed to the priming effect triggered by the text preceding Co-text emojis. There is no significant difference in the number of saccades between emojis and Chinese text, indicating certain similarities between the two. In conclusion, lexicalized Pro-text emojis can be integrated into daily language communication; high frequency emojis have greater advantages in lexical recognition and processing; different functions of emojis in sentences affect their roles in text and processing mechanisms. Conducting research with Chinese as the experimental material provides a new perspective for the study of emoji processing.

Prediction models usually assume that highly constraining contexts allow the pre-activation of phonological information. However, the evidence for phonological prediction is mixed and controversial. In this study, we implement a paradigm that capitalizes on the phonological errors produced by L2 speakers to investigate whether specific phonological predictions are made based on speaker identity. L1 Italian speakers were asked to read sentence fragments, after which a final word was spoken by either an L1- or an L2-accented speaker. The spoken final word could be predictable or not, depending on the sentence context. The identity of the speaker (L1- vs. L2-accented) may or may not be cued by an image of the face of the speaker. Our main analysis indicated that cueing the speaker identity was associated with a larger N400 predictability effect, possibly reflecting an easier processing of predictable words due to phonological pre-activation. As visual inspection of the waveforms revealed a more complex pattern than initially anticipated, we used Temporal EFA (Exploratory Factor Analysis) to identify and disentangle the ERP components underlying the effect observed. In the L1-accent condition, predictable words elicited a posterior positivity relative to unpredictable words, possibly reflecting a P3b response, which was more pronounced when the speaker identity was cued. In the L2-accent condition, cueing the speaker identity was associated with a smaller N1 and a larger P3a response. These results suggest that phonological prediction for L1- and L2-accented speakers likely involves different cognitive processes.

With regard to how aging affects contextual plausibility in Chinese natural silent reading, research remains limited. To address the methodological limitations inherent in using eye-tracking measures and event-related potentials separately, we aimed to apply co-registration of eye-tracking with electroencephalography (EEG) in Chinese natural silent reading. Old and young adults were asked to read sentences that contained either semantically congruent or semantically violated words. We failed to replicate any differences in contextual plausibility effects between the older and younger adults on eye-tracking measures of early word processing (including first fixation duration, gaze duration, probability of skipping, and refixation). However, larger plausibility effects for the old adult readers were observed in the measures of regression in probability and total reading time. No reliable age-related differences in plausibility effects were observed for brain response amplitudes in the parafoveal and foveal intervals (from -400 to 200ms). Both eye-tracking and EEG data demonstrated that contextual plausibility in early word processing was preserved among the old adults, while the Chinese old adult readers made more efforts to reanalyze semantic information in relation to free-view reading.

Abstract Previous L1 syntactic processing studies have identified the crucial left frontotemporal network, whereas research on L2 syntactic processing has shown that learner factors, such as L2 proficiency and linguistic distance, can modulate the related networks. Here, we developed a function-word-based jabberwocky sentence reading paradigm to investigate the neural correlates underlying Chinese L2 syntactic processing. Twenty Chinese L2 Korean native speakers were recruited in this fMRI study. Chinese proficiency test scores and Chinese-Korean syntactic similarity scores were measured to quantify the learner factors, respectively. The imaging results revealed an effective left frontoparietal network involving superior parietal lobule (SPL), posterior inferior frontal gyrus (pIFG) and precentral gyrus (PreCG). Moreover, the signal intensity of SPL as well as the connectivity strength between SPL and PreCG significantly correlated with the learner factors. These findings shed light on the neurobiological relationships between L1 and L2 syntactic processing and on the modulation of L2 learner factors.

Abstract This study tested whether native Chinese (L1) readers whose second language (L2) was English could activate L2 translations of L1 words during L1 sentence reading. Chinese–English bilinguals read Chinese sentences silently, each containing a target word whose parafoveal preview was manipulated. To test cross-language semantic activation, each target word was paired with an identical, an unrelated and a translation-related preview that shared an L2 translation (e.g., 政黨, party as a political group) with the target word (e.g., 派對, party as a social gathering). Compared to the unrelated previews, the translation-related previews induced shorter target-word viewing times, despite no phonological/orthographic overlap. Furthermore, the highly proficient L2 readers showed earlier priming effects than did the average readers. Our results suggest that bilinguals activate lexical representations in both languages automatically and non-selectively, even when the task requires activation of one language only, and that the L2 lexical activation is modulated by L2 proficiency.

This study utilized eye-tracking technology to explore the role of visual word segmentation cues in Tibetan reading, with a particular focus on the effects of dictionary-based and psychological word segmentation on reading and lexical recognition. The experiment employed a 2 × 3 design, comparing six conditions: normal sentences, dictionary word segmentation (spaces), psychological word segmentation (spaces), normal sentences (green), dictionary word segmentation (color alternation), and psychological word segmentation (color alternation). The results revealed that word segmentation with spaces (whether dictionary-based or psychological) significantly improved reading efficiency and lexical recognition, whereas color alternation showed no substantial facilitative effect. Psychological and dictionary word segmentation performed similarly across most metrics, though psychological segmentation slightly outperformed in specific indicators (e.g., sentence reading time and number of fixations), and dictionary word segmentation slightly outperformed in other indicators (e.g., average saccade amplitude and number of regressions). The study further suggests that Tibetan reading may involve cognitive processes at different levels, and the basic units of different levels of cognitive processes may not be consistent. These findings hold significant implications for understanding the cognitive processes involved in Tibetan reading and for optimizing the presentation of Tibetan text.

Phonological, orthographic, and semantic processing during sentence reading in adults with dyslexia: Behavioral and neural correlates.

Variation in eye movement patterns can be considerable even within skilled readers. Here, individual differences and eye movements of 88 average-to-very-skilled readers were assessed to examine the reliability of previous observations of a reduced word frequency effect associated with skilled reading. Shorter fixation durations and higher skipping rates were observed for high frequency compared to low-frequency words. High scores on reading ability tests and vocabulary knowledge tests predicted reduced frequency effects in gaze duration in models with single individual differences predictors, demonstrated by faster reading of low-frequency words compared to low scorers. A principal components analysis grouped individual differences tests based on shared variance. High "lexical proficiency" predicted shorter gaze durations, reading times, and increased word skipping. "Lexical proficiency" and the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-II comprehension test predicted a reduced frequency effect in go past times, and all tests apart from the Nelson Denny Reading Test comprehension test predicted a reduced frequency effect in sentence reading times. Data revealed surprising discrepancies in findings based on two subtests supposedly measuring comprehension (Nelson Denny Reading Test and Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-II), constituting an example of the jingle fallacy: the false assumption that two measures that share a name actually measure the same construct. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

IntroductionContextual embeddings—a core component of large language models (LLMs) that generate dynamic vector representations capturing words’ semantic properties—have demonstrated structural similarities to brain activity patterns at the single-word level. This alignment supports the theoretical framework proposing vector-based neural coding for natural language processing in the brain, where linguistic units may be represented as context-sensitive vectors analogous to LLM-derived embeddings. Building on this framework, we hypothesize that cumulative distance metrics between contextual embeddings of adjacent linguistic units (words/Chinese characters) in sentence contexts may quantitatively reflect neural activation intensity during reading comprehension.MethodsUsing large-scale EEG datasets collected during reading tasks, we systematically investigated the relationship between these computationally derived distance features and frequency-specific band power measures associated with neural activity.ResultsIn conclusion, gamma-band power exhibited associations with various NLP features in the ChineseEEG dataset, whereas no comparable gamma-specific effects were observed in the ZuCo1.0 dataset. Additionally, significant effects were found in other frequency bands for both datasets.DiscussionThe mixed yet intriguing results invite a deeper discussion of the directional associations (positive/negative) observed in Gamma and other frequency bands, their cognitive implications, and the potential influence of textual characteristics on these findings. While observed effects may be somehow text- or dataset- dependent, our analyses revealed associations between various distance metrics and neural responses, consistent with predictions derived from the vector-based neural coding framework.

This research is motivated by the problems encountered by students with mild intellectual disabilities in the seventh grade at SLB Negeri 1 Kubung. The problem experienced by the students is difficulty in reading sentences consisting of three words. This research aims to improve reading skills using the wordwall media. This study uses a quantitative approach with experimental methods, single subject or Single Subject Research (SSR), and uses an A-B design which consists of Baseline (A1) and Intervention (B). The data collection technique is in the form of tests and the data collection tool is observation by recording the students' abilities. Meanwhile, the data analysis technique used is graphic visual analysis. The research results show that at the initial baseline phase (A1), conducted over three meeting sessions, the stable data result was at a percentage of 26%. Meanwhile, the intervention, carried out over nine meetings, showed that the stable data percentage was in the range of 70%. Based on the research results, it can be concluded that the Wordwall media can improve the reading ability of students with mild intellectual disabilities.

Functional MRI can be used to identify individual language-sensitive brain regions in the setting of presurgical diagnostics to improve functional postoperative outcome. In this study, aproven language task was adapted into German and tested with regard to its effectiveness, robustness and reliability in atime frame appropriate for the clinical setting. In addition, two different analysis approaches were compared to address the problem of arbitrary statistical thresholds commonly used in the clinical routine to derive contrast maps. On two different days, 24healthy volunteers were examined in a3T MRI, whereby the task was run twice in each session. The fMRI included two conditions in ablock design, reading of sentences and reading of pronounceable nonword lists. We quantified brain activity by using subject-specific, functionally defined ROIs on the one hand and standardized, anatomically defined ROIs on the other. We then tested, whether the two different analyses indicated robust activation of language-sensitive brain regions, and whether effect sizes were reliable across sessions. Subject-specific functional ROIs as well as anatomical ROIs led to significant positive effect sizes in the major language sensitive regions of the left hemisphere. However, subject-specific functional ROIs resulted in significantly larger effect sizes and ahigher reliability in comparison to anatomical ROIs. The choice of analysis method has asignificant impact on the result. For paradigms with short measurement times and little signal change as common in clinical routine, it is highly recommended to use the subject-specific functional ROIs approach.

The P600 ERP component is elicited by a wide range of anomalies and ambiguities during sentence comprehension and remains important for neurocognitive models of language processing. It has been proposed that the P600 is a more domain-general component, signaling phasic norepinephrine release from the locus coeruleus in response to salient stimuli that require attention and behavioral adaptation. Because such norepinephrine release promotes explicit memory formation, we here investigated whether the P600 during sentence reading (encoding) is thus predictive of such explicit memory formation using a subsequent old/new word recognition task. Indeed, the P600 amplitude during our encoding task was related to behavioral recognition effects in the memory task on a trial-by-trial basis, although only for one type of violation. Recognition performance was better for semantically, but not syntactically, violated words that had previously elicited a larger P600. However, the P600 to both types of violations during encoding was positively related to a more subtle, neural marker of recognition, namely, the amplitude of the recollection ERP component in response to old words. In summary, we find that the P600 predicts later recognition memory both on the behavioral and neural level. Such explicit memory effects further link the late positivity to norepinephrine activity, suggesting a more domain-general nature of the component. The connection between the P600 and later recognition indicates that the neurocognitive processes that deal with salient and anomalous aspects in the linguistic input in the moment will also be involved in keeping this event available for later recognition.

This eye-tracking study investigates how native (L1) and non-native (L2) German speakers retain content and surface linguistic information during reading, drawing on the Construction-Integration Model of text comprehension. Participants read narrative texts, followed by picture and sentence reading tasks designed to assess memory for content and surface linguistic forms (e.g., grammatical voice, attribute position). Results reveal an asymmetric retention pattern: L1 readers demonstrated stronger retention of content information, indicated by longer fixation times on semantically incongruent pictures and sentences. In contrast, L2 readers showed enhanced retention of surface linguistic forms, evidenced by extended fixations on sentences with altered surface structures. These findings align with the Shallow Structure Hypothesis and the Declarative/Procedural Model, suggesting that L2 readers rely more heavily on declarative memory for surface forms due to less automatized syntactic processing. By directly comparing L1 and L2 retention patterns, this study provides novel insights into the mental representation of text in L2 readers, highlighting an increased retention of surface information that is accompanied by reduced content retention.

BackgroundUnderstanding the reading ability of children with intellectual disabilities (ID) can help them improve their communication skill and cognition, but little is known about how home literacy environment (HLE) improves the reading ability of children with ID. The aim of the current study was to explore the mutual predictive relationship between HLE and reading ability of children with ID.MethodsIn June 2022 (T1) and June 2023 (T2), 157 children with mild to moderate intellectual disabilities completed the Chinese reading ability test, while their parents completed a survey on their HLE and demographic information. Descriptive statistics for all variables and Pearson correlation between HLE and reading ability (recognition, sentence reading fluency and vocabulary comprehension) at both T1 and T2 were analysed. To verify the reciprocal predictive relationships between variables, a cross‐lagged analysis was conducted using latent variable structural equation modelling on HLE at T1 and T2, controlling for age and intelligence, as well as on the reading ability of children with ID at these same time points.ResultsLongitudinal cross‐lagged analysis showed that HLE had no significant predictive effect on future reading ability of children with ID, but reading ability had a significant positive predictive effect on future HLE.ConclusionsThe current results suggest that the more the parents are aware of the reading ability of their children with ID, the more they invest in their children's reading development, thereby encouraging them to invest further in creating an enriched HLE for their children.

Google Read Along, a recent ASR-based reading tutor, offers interactive activities that allow learners to read aloud while the system immediately identifies and highlights pronunciation and fluency errors. Grounded in Second Language Acquisition theories—including interactionist theory and sociocultural theory—Google Read Along offers various pedagogical features that support oral language development. Despite its potential, research on the app’s effectiveness remains underexplored. Addressing the growing global emphasis on improving English education for children, particularly in non-English-speaking countries, this study evaluates the app’s impact on young EFL learners’ oral skills, including sentence reading, question answering, picture description, storytelling, and overall speaking performance. Thirty-five elementary school EFL learners participated in a six-week intervention, with 18 in the experimental group using Google Read Along and 17 in the control group using picture books. Each group completed ten 10–15-minute sessions. Results from a linear mixed-effects model reveal that the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group in overall speaking performance. While the app did not yield significant improvements in sentence reading compared to conventional methods, its effects were more pronounced in learners’ ability to describe pictures and, notably, in answering questions and storytelling, where greater improvement trends were observed. These findings underscore the value of ASR-based reading tutors like Google Read Along in promoting oral skills and communicative competence among young language learners.