True or false: The effect of numerical magnitude on sense of agency.

Toward dimensional body consciousness impairments in post-traumatic stress disorder and its dissociative subtype: A predictive processing approach.

Peripersonal space (PPS)-the immediate space surrounding the body-modulates perception and motor control. However, its impact on how voluntary actions are initiated and subjectively experienced remains underexplored. Similarly, how directing attention to different phases of an action, such as intention formation versus execution, and anticipating outcomes of an action, modulates the neural readiness for movement, has yet to be fully examined. This study investigates whether spatial proximity, attentional focus, and anticipated action outcomes influence action preparation and action awareness, using a virtual reality adaptation of the Libet clock paradigm during EEG recordings. Neural results reveal that attentional focus and anticipated action outcomes modulate different phases of motor preparation, as indexed by the readiness potential (RP)-a gradual buildup of neural activity preceding voluntary movement. Focusing on decision timing (without subsequent action outcomes) enhances early RP amplitude and decreases the late RP slope, suggesting increased preparatory neural engagement during intention formation. In contrast, focusing on action execution leads to a steeper late RP slope, indicating later and faster motor activity buildup when attention is directed toward movement onset. Anticipating action outcomes increased late RP slope, which was accompanied by the temporal binding effect: when a tone followed the action, both decision and action estimates shifted toward it. Spatial proximity also modulates early RP slope, with a steeper buildup in near versus far space, suggesting facilitated motor preparation within PPS. It further enhances the late RP amplitude when participants focused on their intention to act. Behavioral results show that actions are perceived as occurring earlier when the clock is displayed near compared to far, indicating that PPS influences the temporal perception of action timing. Overall, these findings highlight the dynamic interplay among external spatial context and internal cognitive processes in shaping motor preparation and action awareness. Importantly, a temporal internal attentional focus on intention to act modulates early RP-traditionally considered an unconscious stage of neural readiness. These results contribute to a deeper understanding of how PPS and the locus of attention on specific action phases affect action preparation and awareness, with potential implications for future research on the sense of agency and voluntary action decision making.

The sense of agency (SoA) - the experience of controlling one's actions and, through them, events in the external world - is a cornerstone of cognitive science, psychology, and philosophy, underpinning autonomy and responsibility. Yet research on SoA has overwhelmingly focused on Outcome-level Agency (control over external effects) and, to a lesser extent, Action-level Agency (control over bodily movements). A third, upstream dimension - Decision-level Agency, defined as the experience of originating and committing to one's own decisions or intentions even in the absence of overt action - has remained comparatively neglected and rarely operationalized as a distinct target of measurement. Drawing on philosophical analysis and converging neuroscientific evidence, this paper argues that deciding and intending constitute mental actions in their own right, as the brain actively selects, commits to, revises, or withholds intentions. I propose a three-level framework - Decision, Action, and Outcome - that explicitly incorporates Decision-level Agency as a distinct yet hierarchically integrated component of SoA. This reconceptualization is not only theoretically informative but ethically urgent in the era of generative artificial intelligence, where external systems can increasingly shape human autonomy upstream at the level of decision formation rather than action execution. By outlining testable predictions and experimental paradigms, this work establishes Decision-level Agency as an empirically tractable dimension of human volition and provides a framework for understanding and safeguarding autonomy in AI-mediated environments.

ABSTRACT Patients are engaging in unprecedented levels of online health information-seeking (e.g., via TikTok, Google). Guided by shared decision-making (SDM) theorizing, this study illuminates health care workers’ (HCWs) perspectives of patients’ use of online health information in clinical encounters. We identify third-party health information (i.e., health information from beyond a clinical encounter) as a decision-making agent in the SDM process. Applying reflexive thematic analysis to analyze 17 interviews with HCWs, our findings revealed how online health information influences the SDM process by shifting perceptions of decision-making orientation and heightening patients’ sense of agency. Our findings also reveal how HCWs navigate SDM when patients use online health information by praising the new-age information economy, promoting mediated health literacy to moderate patient health anxiety, and prioritizing and validating patients’ lived experiences. We conclude by discussing implications for SDM and practical implications for HCWs.

Autonomous robotic prostheses can aid individuals with limb loss regain functionality and near-normal appearance. However, to psychologically integrate such limbs into one's body image, it is necessary to understand how movement characteristics, such as movement speed, affect the sense of embodiment. Using a VR simulation, we investigated how the speed of autonomous lower-arm movements affects embodiment and user-perception. Nineteen healthy participants embodied an amputated virtual avatar with a prosthetic lower left-arm moving autonomously at six different speeds following minimum-jerk trajectories. Participants rated sense of body ownership, sense of agency, usability, competence, warmth, and discomfort after performing a reaching task at each speed. Ownership, sense of agency, and usability were highest for moderate speeds (autonomous movements lasting 1s), and were significantly lower for both faster (125 ms) and slower (4s) movements (p < 0.05). Competence was significantly higher at moderate and moderately fast speeds compared to slower speeds. Discomfort was significantly higher at the fastest speed compared to moderate and slower speeds. Overall, the results show a tendency of moderate movement speeds being favorable for user perception of autonomous limbs and hint at the existence of an optimal speed or a speed range for enhancing embodiment and usability.

This interpretive study focuses on the Rits Global Gateway Camp, an ICL program based on the Guiding Framework of Inclusive ICL. The framework connects local primary school students and university students with various cultural backgrounds studying in Japan. This study aims to explore and illustrate university students’ learning experiences throughout the program and to identify key facilitating factors that support inclusive ICL practices. Data were collected through in-depth interviews and complemented by contextual information from program observations. Through thematic analysis, we identified meaningful outcomes and transformative impacts of the program. This included strengthening participants’ self-efficacy and sense of agency.

Minimal conditions for the emergence of a vicarious sense of agency toward artificial agents.

The role of regularity detection and prediction in the exploration of sense of agency.

In-hospital standard of care for people living with diabetes (PLWD) is based on capillary blood glucose to activate hypoglycemia treatment protocols. PLWD on non-critical care wards often prefer to keep their continuous glucose monitor (CGM) on for their sense of agency. This systematic review assessed the CGM accuracy in the hypoglycemic range for these PLWD. Databases were searched from 2012 to August 2025. We included studies of adult PLWD on non-critical care wards, with CGM levels below 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L) that were compared with paired reference blood glucose levels. Nine included studies reported on 465 hypoglycemic CGM and reference blood glucose pairs. The mean and median absolute relative differences ranged from 7.6% to 53.3%, and from 11.7% to 38.5%, respectively. The methods for pairing CGM with reference blood glucose varied. In eight studies, the mean absolute relative differences between hypoglycemia range CGM and paired reference blood glucose results were greater than 15%. These high mean absolute relative differences suggest that hypoglycemic range CGM results are too inaccurate to guide in-hospital diabetes therapy.

The article presents a review of the literature on the psychological challenges faced by individuals relying on social assistance. The aim of the analysis is to identify the most common mental health difficulties and to assess the significance of psychological support in the process of social and professional reintegration. Particular attention is given to chronic stress, lowered self-esteem, learned helplessness syndrome, as well as social stigma and self-stigmatization. Adaptive mechanisms are discussed, both constructive – supporting the development of psychological resilience, and destructive – contributing to deepening isolation and reinforcing dependence on the welfare system. The article presents empirical findings indicating that a key factor in reintegration is access to adequate forms of psychological support, closely linked to social assistance measures. It is emphasized that the lack of emotional support and social networks constitutes a significant barrier to overcoming crisis situations. The role of social assistance institutions is also highlighted; beyond their control and evaluative functions, they should adopt a partnership-oriented perspective based on empathy and the strengthening of beneficiaries’ sense of agency. The literature review clearly demonstrates that lasting improvements in psychological well-being and effective integration of individuals at risk of marginalization are only possible through a comprehensive, interdisciplinary approach that combines psychological, educational, and social components.

The sense of agency (SoA)-the experience of being in control of one's own actions and outcomes-is a fundamental aspect of daily life. Prior research shows that SoA can be disturbed when actions are externally instructed rather than voluntarily initiated; however, the role of the instructing agent specifically in shaping this effect remains underexplored. As artificial agents (e.g., online chatbots, virtual avatars) become increasingly embedded in everyday interactions, their potential to influence human action raises important questions about the experience of agency. Across three studies, we investigate how action instructions delivered by a human or an artificial agent (in the form of an on-screen embodied chatbot) influence both implicit (temporal binding) and explicit (self-reported control) measures of agency. The results of Study 1 (implicit) showed that binding was strongest in the free choice condition wherein participants' actions were of their own volition compared to actions conducted under external instruction. Notably, binding was significantly reduced when actions were directed by a chatbot compared to the free choice condition. Similarly, the results of Study 2 (explicit) showed that self-reported control ratings were the highest in the free choice condition and decreased significantly when comparing the free choice condition with both instruction conditions. After conducting a third follow-up study that integrates both implicit and explicit methods, we were able to replicate the findings of Study 1 and 2. These results highlight a distinction in the experience of agency when responding to human- versus technology-driven instructions.

Modern technology frequently places the consequences of our actions at a distance (e.g. remote surgery, smart-home control, virtual reality). Does spatial distance between an action and its outcome weaken the sense of agency (SoA) - the feeling of control over one’s actions and consequences? Two recent studies, by Jenkins and Obhi and Mariano et al., answered “yes,” reporting stronger temporal binding (TB) in near than far space and interpreting this as greater implicit agency. A third study - our own work with a similar paradigm - found no distance effect. Here we (i) provide a rigorous side-by-side methodological comparison of the three studies, (ii) argue why a direct test to establish a distance modulation of TB (the Near - Far difference of the Active - Passive delta) should be performed in order to reach meaningful conclusions, and (iii) report new reanalyses of our data and direct tests on the two target studies. Overall, current evidence does not support a distance effect on SoA. Our reassessment provides alternative explanations that converge with available evidence suggesting that distance may influence temporal interval perception, but that effect is independent of action intention and therefore of agency.Public Significance Statement: In our increasingly connected world, we often interact with devices and influence events that are physically distant from us - like controlling smart appliances remotely or engaging in virtual reality experiences. Does the distance between us and the effects of our actions change how much we feel in control of the outcomes of our actions? Recent studies have suggested that we feel less responsible when action outcomes appear in far space compared to near space. However, methodological limitations in these studies, as well as our own results with a similar paradigm, challenge the validity of this claim. We aim to contribute to the crucial debate on the role of spatial distance on humans’ feeling of responsibility by providing a respectful though critical analysis of recent findings and offering recommendations for future research.

ABSTRACT By reviewing and critiquing the research on children’s spirituality, this article considers the implications for how the spiritual overlaps with the moral and religious dimensions of children’s lives and for how these can be nurtured. While how spirituality is defined and understood is elusive, common themes relate to its innateness, the need for descriptions to apply in both religious and other frameworks and the search for identity, meaning, purpose and connectedness. A holistic, cross-curricular approach which seeks to strengthen children’s sense of agency and dispositions such as empathy, kindness and open-mindedness is advocated. This requires reciprocal, trusting relationships in inclusive, hospitable and caring environments which provide time, space and sensitive guidance and modelling. Such an approach, broadly based on virtue ethics, runs counter to current educational and socio-cultural assumptions, such as the emphasis on knowledge acquisition, immediacy and individualism, associated with neo-liberalism and messages from the media.

Bayesian Integration in Sense of Agency: Understanding Self-Attribution and Individual Differences

This randomised controlled trial compared a 10-session chatbot intervention with 5 weekly brief support calls (STARS) to enhanced usual care (EUC) in distressed young adults in Jordan (N = 344). Primary outcome was change in anxiety and depression severity assessed at baseline by the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL), 1-week posttreatment, and 3 months after treatment (primary outcome timepoint), as well as secondary outcome measures of psychological distress, personally identified problems, functional impairment, wellbeing and perceived agency. At the 3-month assessment, relative to EUC participants enrolled in STARS reported greater reductions of anxiety (effect size, 0.70) and depression (size, 0.61), as well as greater reductions in psychological distress, personally identified problems, functional impairment and greater improvement in wellbeing and sense of agency. Similar levels of efficacy were retained even for those with more severe symptom levels. This guided chatbot offers a scalable psychological intervention that can be implemented to increase access to evidence-based mental health care. Trial Registration: The trial was prospectively registered on ISRCTN on 02/11/2022 (10.1186/ISRCTN19217696).

BackgroundAnxiety and depressive disorders are common and burdensome, yet many people prefer to self-manage and do not access treatment or fail to achieve meaningful improvement. Prior research indicates that the frequency of performing simple, everyday actions, namely “The Things You Do” (TYD; ie, healthy thinking, meaningful activities, having goals and plans, healthy routines, and social connection), is strongly associated with support mental health and well-being. This research has been primarily quantitative in nature, and so less is known about how people perceive and interpret changes in their mental health when engaging in or limiting these actions.ObjectiveThis study aims to explore participants’ perceptions of mental health changes and associated insights into what most impacts their mental health, during a randomized controlled trial involving the systematic restriction and followed by the resumption of the TYD actions.MethodsThis longitudinal qualitative substudy analyzed weekly free-text comments from 70 healthy Australian adults (intervention group [IG] n=36; control group [CG] n=34). IG participants completed an 8-week randomized controlled trial comprising 3 phases: a 2-week baseline phase (Phase A), a 2-week behavior restriction phase during which they reduced the frequency of the TYD actions (Phase B), and a 4-week recovery or resumption phase during which they increased the frequency of the TYD actions back to usual levels (Phase C). CG participants were instructed to maintain usual habits and activities. The weekly free-text comments were related to what participants had noticed and learned about their mental health. These were thematically analyzed using framework methods to identify patterns in perceived changes, considering trial phase, group allocation, and participant characteristics.ResultsAnalyses identified five interrelated themes around what participants reportedly learned and what most impacted their mental health: (1) rhythms of daily life and routine, (2) harnessing internal psychological resources, (3) social support and interpersonal stressors, (4) staying active and enjoying yourself, and (5) environmental and external influences. In the IG, participants reported that behavioral restriction led to subjective disruptions across all 5 themes, precipitating declines in mood, energy, and stability; resumption fostered recovery, along with increased insights into oneself and mental health, coping strategies, and a sense of agency. Compared to the IG, the CG more often emphasized environmental and external influences.ConclusionsThe findings reinforce the centrality of specific daily actions, namely the TYD, to people’s subjective well-being and suggest an additional “macro-level” comprising environmental and external influences. Exposure to behavioral restriction and resumption/recovery served to highlight the importance of certain factors for mental health and appeared to improve people’s sense of agency and locus of control regarding their mental health.

Across the Western world, support for bystander intervention in intimate partner violence (IPV) is enshrined within government policies, fostering the expectation that community members have a moral obligation to intervene to disrupt and prevent IPV. However, IPV situations are often highly complex, and research demonstrates that there are significant risks that prevent victims from seeking help. Research also shows that victims exercise great care and agency in deciding which risks they are, or are not, willing to take. Critically, there is limited understanding of if and how the risks that prevent victims from help-seeking persist-or, indeed, are exacerbated-when a bystander subverts a victim's agency to intervene on their behalf. Drawing on in-depth qualitative interviews with IPV victims and service providers, this paper examines victims' firsthand experiences of bystander intervention, with a particular focus on their perceptions of risk and their sense of agency in managing their own safety. We found that bystanders' active interventions sometimes led victims to make decisions or take actions that they were not yet ready to take, and often increased the sense of risk victims were feeling. Victims then took responsibility for managing this increased risk, which added to the already heavy burden they were carrying in trying to keep themselves and their children safe. Our findings point to the critical need for more evidence to build a robust understanding of the contexts and complexities that contribute to a bystander's intervention being experienced as helpful or harmful, and this evidence must be directly informed by victims themselves.

This article offers a close reading of Achmat Dangor’s stories “Skin Costs Extra” and “Goodbye, Midnight” from the perspective of masculinity studies and affect theory. It argues that Dangor’s stories describe post-apartheid masculinities by exploring the lingering influence of patriarchal and hegemonic gender patterns on male-female relationships. Dangor’s male protagonists adopt these notions of masculinity in the hope that it will give them a sense of agency. Attached to the privileges of hegemonic masculinity, they also feel the confines of this gender formation, even if they do not express this awareness in an overt way. This sense of limitation imposed by their masculinities is analyzed on the level of affect and emotion. To that end, the article juxtaposes those two notions by referring to chosen critical perspectives on affect studies, including those by Brian Massumi, Todd Reeser, Lucas Gottzén, and others.

The past 15 years have seen a rise in initiatives set up to enable marginalised groups to create walking tours of their own communities, thus also creating alternative destination experiences. This research investigates the level of control marginalised communities have on the content and narratives of walking tours they deliver, the extent to which tour guides include or exclude aspects of their marginalisation, and how these factors affect their agency and self-empowerment. The qualitative analysis draws on semi-structured interviews with senior leadership and tour guides from 11 tour organisations who engage marginalised people in walking tours. The analysis reveals that by amplifying peoples’ voices and giving them a platform, tour guiding increases the guides’ sense of agency and belonging, can transform public opinion and increase the visibility of marginalised individuals – particularly when guides are able to shape the narrative and content of the tours. Consequently, tours delivered and designed by marginalised individuals contribute to making urban destinations more socially inclusive, thus forming an essential part of the justice tourism and sustainability agenda.