Selfish Behavior Of Nodes Research Articles

Congestion aware reward based scheme based on delay tolerant networks for emergency evacuation in 6G‐based internet of things networks

AbstractInternet of Things (IoT) networks are based on advanced augmented reality‐based applications for better services. These advanced networks are always at threat due to different disasters in an urban congested environment. Delay tolerant networks is one of the well‐known solutions with various features. However, due to heavy data traffic, it suffered from congestion and selfish behavior issues. The existing solutions endeavored to mitigate selfishness and enforce nodes to cooperate which leads to congestion. The information concerning other nodes in the network is needed and to be maintained, stored, and shared. In this article, the issue of the occurrence of congestion while mitigating the selfish behavior of nodes is taken into account, especially for augmented reality (AR) and 6 G‐based IoT networks. This article proposes a credit‐based congestion aware reward‐based scheme for enforcing nodes to cooperate to refrain from selfishness. The load‐sharing technique handles the congestion in 6G/AR‐based IoT networks where the messages are shifted to low or non‐congested nodes rather than dropping them. Simulation results affirm the efficacy of the proposed scheme in terms of data delivery ratio, network overhead, energy consumption, and latency and outperform compare to the state‐of‐the‐art schemes.

Selfish Node Detection Scheme based on Bates Distribution Inspired Trust Factor for MANETs

The trustworthiness of mobile nodes is considered as the principal parameter for ensuring significant data dissemination in a Mobile Ad hoc NETwork (MANET). However, the selfish behaviour of nodes minimizes the trust by dropping a considerable amount of data packets in the network. The significant dropping of data packets by the selfish node introduces huge data overhead with increased latency and energy consumption, thus increasing the number of retransmissions. In this paper, Selfish Node Detection Scheme based on Bates Distribution Inspired Trust Factor (SNDS-BDITF) is propounded for predominant detection of selfish behaviour by investigating multiple levels of factors that contribute towards effective selfishness detection. The proposed SNDS-BDITF approach is also potent in enhancing the detection rate of selfishness by multi-perspective analysis of each monitored node’s forwarding characteristics considering the benefits of other cooperating mobile nodes. The simulation results of the propounded SNDS-BDITF method are enhanced on an average by 16% and 14% when compared to the existing selfish node segregation mechanisms prevalent in the literature.

Game Theory-Based Energy-Efficient Clustering Algorithm for Wireless Sensor Networks.

Energy efficiency is one of the critical challenges in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). WSNs collect and transmit data through sensor nodes. However, the energy carried by the sensor nodes is limited. The sensor nodes need to save energy as much as possible to prolong the network lifetime. This paper proposes a game theory-based energy-efficient clustering algorithm (GEC) for wireless sensor networks, where each sensor node is regarded as a player in the game. According to the length of idle listening time in the active state, the sensor node can adopt favorable strategies for itself, and then decide whether to sleep or not. In order to avoid the selfish behavior of sensor nodes, a penalty mechanism is introduced to force the sensor nodes to adopt cooperative strategies in future operations. The simulation results show that the use of game theory can effectively save the energy consumption of the sensor network and increase the amount of network data transmission, so as to achieve the purpose of prolonging the network lifetime.

Selfish Caching Games on Directed Graphs

Caching networks can reduce the routing costs of accessing contents by caching contents closer to users. However, cache nodes may belong to different entities and behave selfishly to maximize their own benefits, which often lead to performance degradation for the overall network. While there has been extensive literature on allocating contents to caches to maximize the social welfare, the analysis of selfish caching behaviors remains largely unexplored. In this paper, we model the selfish behaviors of cache nodes as selfish caching games on arbitrary directed graphs with heterogeneous content popularity. We study the existence of a pure strategy Nash equilibrium (PSNE) in selfish caching games, and analyze its efficiency in terms of social welfare. We show that a PSNE does not always exist in arbitrary-topology caching networks. However, if the network does not have a mixed request loop, i.e., a directed loop in which each edge is traversed by at least one content request, we show that a PSNE always exists and can be found in polynomial time. Furthermore, we can avoid mixed request loops by properly choosing request forwarding paths. We then show that the efficiency of Nash equilibria, captured by the price of anarchy (PoA), can be arbitrarily poor if we allow arbitrary content request patterns, and adding extra cache nodes can make the PoA worse, i.e., cache paradox happens. However, when cache nodes have homogeneous request patterns, we show that the PoA is bounded even allowing arbitrary topologies. We further analyze the selfish caching games for cache nodes with limited computational capabilities, and show that an approximate PSNE exists with bounded PoA in certain cases of interest. Simulation results show that increasing the cache capacity in the network improves the efficiency of Nash equilibria, while adding extra cache nodes can degrade the efficiency of Nash equilibria.

A Reliable Transport Scheme for Human Opportunistic Networks

The human opportunistic networks (ONs) formed by hand-held smart devices can facilitate peer-to-peer communication when humans are on the move, despite contemporaneous end-to-end paths rarely existing. In some scenarios, where network resources, especially power, are scarce and the traffic is large, the data delivery is prone to poor user experience and unbounded delay, although the best effort mechanism “store-carry-forward” is used. To cope with that, most transport/routing schemes obtain an acceptable latency at the cost of energy resources. In real-life human ONs, however, excessive energy consumption will trigger passive participation of the relays in message forwarding, so as to save their limited energy resource. Thus, the reliability of these schemes may get worse in real-life human ONs. In this paper, a reliable transport scheme is developed by making an optimal trade-off between the file round-trip delay and the energy consumption of relays. We make use of acknowledgements and coding at the source to enable successful file delivery. When setting up the network model, the cache management rule referred as “full-duplex” strategy is formulated, and then a mathematical model is established to analyze the proposed scheme. This model describes the evolution of packet dissemination and allows both the mean file round-trip delay and the energy consumption up to the reception of the last acknowledgement by the source to be expressed. Subsequently, a new function based on these two metrics is proposed to reflect the number of files that can be delivered under time and energy constraints. Through optimization procedure, the configurations that can maximize the function are obtained; thus, the optimization of these two metrics is achieved. Numerous simulations and comparisons are conducted and the results verify the accuracy of the analytical model. Comparison results show that with limited energy and passive relays, the proposed transport scheme can significantly reduce the energy consumption of file delivery, which obviously alleviates the selfish behavior of nodes. Therefore, the reliability and stability of the communication service in human ONs are enhanced.

Collaborative energy efficient zone‐based routing protocol for multihop Internet of Things

ABSTRACTIn Internet of Things (IoT) the nodes collaborate over a network in multihop manner and relay data toward IoT gateway that is ultimately connected to an IP network. The conventional multihop routing protocols assume that all nodes behave truthfully when they receive packets for downstream network but in reality, the IoT relaying nodes avoid message forwarding. The main reason of selfish behavior of nodes is the limited battery power. Many such nodes have limited battery constraint so these nodes may become selfish to save their energy. These nodes need to be encouraged to cooperate in order to increase network life time instead of just trying to increase node's own benefits. This paper discusses energy aware zone‐based routing technique that employs game theory to enhance nodes' cooperation and energy efficiency. The nodes follow a path with highest average energy for communication and provide collective support, hence the network life time is increases. For comparative analysis, simulation is performed for the proposed technique along with the existing techniques. The results show betterment in throughput, packet delivery ratio, and network life time.

Intrusion Detection for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks Based on Node Reputation

The mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is more vulnerable to attacks than traditional networks, due to the high mobility of nodes, the weakness of transmission media and the absence of central node. To overcome the vulnerability, this paper mainly studies the way to detect selfish nodes in the MANET, and thus prevent network intrusion. Specifically, a data-driven reputation evaluation model was proposed to detect selfish nodes using a new reputation mechanism. The mechanism consists of a monitoring module, a reputation evaluation module, penalty module and a response module. The MANET integrated with our reputation mechanism was compared with the traditional MANET through simulation. The results show that the addition of reputation mechanism can suppress the selfish behavior of network nodes and enhance network security.

A peer-to-peer communication based content distribution protocol for incentive-aware delay tolerant networks

In the absence of Internet connectivity, a content-centric opportunistic network can be established by mobile human-held devices. However, to save battery, buffer, and bandwidth resources, device carriers may selfishly disable their delay-tolerant networking (DTN) application when communication is not desired. Consequently, the network performance will degrade as the majority of the data forwarding protocols for the DTNs are designed assuming cooperative relaying by nodes. To inculcate cooperation among the otherwise selfish communicating nodes, we propose an incentive-aware pricing game for interest-based social-aware forwarding in the DTNs. We formulate the pricing game between nodes as the Rubinstein Bargain model to enhance content distribution in DTNs. The communicating nodes decide the pricing and the cooperation level based on the following three parameters: (1) remaining battery level, (2) their social strength, and (3) message worth. Moreover, to enhance content distribution of large size messages in such networks, the proposed algorithm enables nodes to share information in a peer-to-peer fashion. Performance evaluation shows that the proposed algorithm effectively increases the distribution ratio of complete files, reduces their data delivery delays, and mitigates the selfish behavior of nodes.

Cooperative data forwarding based on crowdsourcing in vehicular social networks

The mobile crowdsourcing capabilities of commuters in Vehicular Social Networks (VSNs) can provide promising solutions to several challenges of today’s smart cities, such as traffic congestion control, traffic management, smart parking, and route recommendation. In VSNs, mobile crowdsourcing depends upon the cooperative data forwarding behavior of nodes. In most of the existing data forwarding protocols designed for VSNs and delay tolerant networks (DTNs), it is assumed that nodes actively participate and are fully cooperative to relay data for others. In the real world, the selfish behavior of nodes considerably degrades the performance of these protocols. The reason is those selfish nodes only cooperate to relay data for nodes with whom they have strong social ties or mutual interests. In this paper, we present a Cooperative Data Forwarding (CDF) mechanism to stimulate the selfish nodes to participate in data forwarding. To enhance data forwarding mechanism, CDF is based on a socially-aware routing mechanism and a cooperative algorithm using direct observations and mobile crowdsourcing information to stimulate selfish nodes to participate in data forwarding. Besides, CDF is a multi-hop single copy forwarding mechanism which considerably decreases the network overhead. In our experimental results and analysis, we use real-world vehicular mobility dataset based on mobile crowdsourcing. The results show that CDF encourages more and more nodes to cooperate and improves network performance significantly in terms of data delivery ratio, transmission cost, and end-to-end delay which can substantially enhance the mobile crowdsourcing applications of VSNs.

Addressing space‐constraint driven selfishness in smart opportunistic environment

SummaryA smart opportunistic environment is a physical space, which allows the smart physical objects to communicate in the presence of disruption in connectivity. Because, the objects in such an environment are buffer constrained, some of the objects will not participate in data forwarding, when there is scarcity of storage (buffer) space. In this paper, we focus on such selfish behavior of objects triggered by space constraints in a smart opportunistic environment. We propose a novel data forwarding algorithm, selfishness and buffer‐aware routing (SBR), in which a node is chosen as a relay, based on its capability, which is a function of its available buffer space and past encounter history (delivery predictability) with the destination. SBR can efficiently utilize the limited buffer space in a node with a buffer management scheme, WSD. It can also detect space constraint driven selfish behavior of nodes and resolve it using a reputation‐based technique, MSD. We have conducted simulation using both synthetic and real‐world traces for evaluating our proposed SBR algorithm. For analyzing the performance of the algorithm in real‐time, a smart vehicular test‐bed is developed. Simulation results and test‐bed implementation show that our algorithm performs better in terms of higher delivery ratio, lower overhead ratio, and lower delivery delay, compared with existing opportunistic data forwarding algorithms.

Trust Based Intrusion Detection Technique to Detect Selfish Nodes in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

The applications and protocols conceived for mobile ad hoc networks rely on the assumption of cooperation amongst the mobile nodes because of lacking infrastructure. All nodes have to spend their precious resources (e.g. battery power, memory, computational power, and network bandwidth) for routing and packet forwarding operations for other nodes, in a cooperative way in the network. However, there are some nodes that may intentionally turn themselves to behave selfishly in order to conserve their valuable resources. The selfish behaviour of such nodes drastically reduces the desired degree of cooperation amongst the mobile nodes. Over the course of time, the non-cooperative activities of, such selfish nodes would paralyze the normal functioning of the whole network. Therefore, these types of nodes should be detected and isolated from the network, as soon as they begin to exhibit their selfish behaviour. In this paper, a dynamic trust based intrusion detection technique is presented to detect and isolate the selfish nodes from the network, where the direct trust degree based on direct communication interactions and indirect (recommended) trust degree based on the neighbours’ recommendations are taking into account to accurately judge the selfishness nature of the nodes. The results obtained throughout the simulation experiments clearly show the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed intrusion detection technique.

COCOWA MODEL: WATCHDOG MECHANISM USED TO PROPAGATE SELFISH NODES IN CELLULAR NETWORKS OF MOVING VEHICLES

The cellular networks are used to move the rapid growth in the mobile data in the explosion on the cellular network. The offload cellular networks are dynamic in the swimming condition. The highly dynamic sector is improved by the WIFI networks the Access point is configured by the MAC and the IP address. The mobile Ad hoc network model is formatted on the selfish node behavior .The detecting selfish node is performed by the watch dog timers. The swimming performances are used to move the delay tolerant networks. The cocowa approach based on the diffusion on the selfish node propagated. The collaborative approach are reduces the time and increases the precision when detecting the selfish nodes.

Evaluation of neighbor credit value based AODV routing algorithms for selfish node behavior detection

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) nodes interchange information by means of numerous intermediate nodes without the requirement of infrastructure (Toh, Ad hoc mobile wireless networks: protocols and systems, pp 34–37, 2002). Owing to the exposed arrangement and inadequate energy of the nodes, some nodes may not involve in the routing process properly (Laay et al., IEEE Commun Surv Tutor 10(4):78–93, 2008). This leads to selfish behavior of the nodes and moreover, some nodes do not have the chance to forward the packets, so they still idle in the network. Hence, these genuine idle nodes are also considered as selfish nodes and they are avoided in the routing process. To address this issue, credit-based protocols namely Neighbor credit value based and improved Neighbor credit value based Ad Hoc on demand distance vector (AODV) routing algorithms are proposed. These two protocols are evaluated against AODV for the better detection of selfish node behavior. Earlier works addressed the methods to overwhelm selfish behavior attack but fail in performance. A simple neighbor credit value based AODV (NCV-AODV) routing protocol was proposed to avoid such false detection. Some simple assumption is made on NCV-AODV that the nodes in the network are fundamentally not malicious and only some of the new nodes may be added to behave maliciously. This improved version is called improved Neighbor credit value based AODV (iNCV-AODV) protocol is proposed. The proposed two mechanisms are implemented in AODV routing protocol. An extensive analysis of the performance of the proposed detection mechanisms against the selfish behavior attack.

Incentive-Compatible Packet Forwarding in Mobile Social Networks via Evolutionary Game Theory

In the absence of end-to-end paths and without the knowledge of the whole network, packet forwarding, including forwarding decision (i.e., forwarding or dropping the packet) and relaying selection, is crucial to be made by the individual of the node based on the packet-forwarding protocol in autonomous mobile social networks (MSNs). In this paper, we investigate the adaptive packet forwarding in MSNs afflicted with potential selfish nodes. When considering the various selfish behaviors of network nodes in multi-hop MSNs, an incentive compatible multiple-copy packet forwarding (ICMPF) protocol is proposed to maintain a satisfied packet delivery probability while reducing the delivery overhead. Considering the fact that the node's forwarding decision in the ICMPF protocol is affected by its available resources (i.e., bandwidth and location privacy) and network environment (i.e., other nodes' actions and social ties), an evolutionary game framework is exploited for modeling the complicated interactions among nodes to guide their forwarding behaviors. Meanwhile, we portray the forwarding behavior dynamics and develop the evolutionary stable strategy (ESS) for this game-theoretic framework. Then, we prove that the strategy dynamics converge to the ESS and further develop a distributed learning algorithm for nodes to approach to the ESS. Simulation results show that our system converges to the ESS and also is robust to the learning error induced by the communication noise.

A Security and Efficient Routing Scheme with Misbehavior Detection in Delay-Tolerant Networks

Due to the unique network characteristics, the security and efficient routing in DTNs are considered as two great challenges. In this paper, we design a security and efficient routing scheme, called SER, which integrates the routing decision and the attacks detection mechanisms. In SER scheme, each DTNs node locally maintains a one-dimensional vector table to record the summary information about the contact with other nodes and the trust degree of other nodes. To obtain the global status and the contact relationship among all nodes, the trusted routing table consisting of vectors of all nodes is built in each DTNs node. The method for detecting malicious nodes and selfish nodes is proposed, which exploits the global summary information to analyze the history forwarding behavior of node and judge whether it is a malicious node or selfish node. The routing decision method is proposed based on trust degree of forwarding messages between nodes, which adopts trust degree as relay node selection strategy. Simulation results show that compared with existing schemes SER scheme could detect the attacks behavior of malicious nodes and selfish nodes, at the same time, with higher delivery rate and lower average delivery delay.

Dynamic Spectrum Leasing for Bi-Directional Communication: Impact of Selfishness

In this paper, we propose a beamforming-based dynamic spectrum leasing (DSL) technique to improve the spectral utility of bi-directional communication of the legacy/primary spectrum users through the help of colocated secondary users. The secondary users help for a time interval to relay the data between two primary terminals using physical layer network coding and beamforming to attain bi-directional communication with high spectral utility. As a reimbursement, the secondary users, cognitive radios (CRs) in our case, get exclusive access to the primary spectrum for a certain duration. We use Nash bargaining to determine the optimal division of temporal resources between relaying and reimbursement. Moreover, we consider that a fraction of secondary nodes can act selfishly by not helping the primary, yet enjoy the reimbursement time. We measure the utility of the DSL scheme in terms of a metric called time-bandwidth product (TBP) ratio quantifying the number of bits transmitted in direct communication versus DSL. We show that if all secondary nodes act honestly, more than 17-fold increase in the TBP ratio is observed for a sparse CR network. However, in such a network, selfish behavior of CR nodes can reduce the gain by more than a factor of 2.

Exponential reliability factor based mitigation mechanism for selfish nodes in MANETs

Reliable dissemination of data in mobile ad hoc networks mainly depends on thecooperation among all the active mobile nodes present in the network. However,enforcing a node to cooperate with all the other mobile nodes is a difficult task.Moreover, the mobile nodes in an ad hoc network have limited battery power and hencethey refuse to forward their neighbor nodes’ packets so as to conserve their energy.This intentional selfish behavior of mobile nodes reduces the degree of cooperationbetween active mobile nodes which in turn affects the network performance. Hence,a need arises for formulating a reputation mechanism which helps in isolating selfishnodes in MANETs. In this paper, we propose an Exponential Reliability FactorBased Mitigation Mechanism (ERFBM) for detecting and isolating selfish nodes.This ERFBM efficiently isolates selfish nodes with the aid of Exponential ReliabilityFactor (ERF) computed based on the first and second hand information obtainedfrom the mobile nodes. The effective performance of ERFBM is extensively studiedthrough ns-2 simulations and the results obtained clearly portray that the proposedERFBM isolates selfish nodes at a faster rate of 36% than the considered benchmarkmitigation mechanisms such as Record and Trust-Based Detection (RTBD), ReliabilityFactor Based Mitigation Mechanism (RFBMM) and Packet Monitoring ConservationAlgorithm (PCMA). The simulation study also depicts that ERFBM on an average,improves the performance of the network by reducing the communication overhead by21%, 29% and 34% more than the three benchmark mitigation mechanisms consideredfor investigation.

Trusted GPSR protocol without reputation faking in VANET

In vehicular ad hoc network (VANET), misbehaviors of internal nodes, such as discarding packets, may lead to a rapid decline in packet delivery ratio. To solve this problem, an improvement of greedy perimeter stateless routing (GPSR) protocol is presented. In the new protocol, trustworthiness is considered in the route selection process. The trustworthiness is measured by an objective trust model based on the subjective trust model DyTrust. And the reputation value which reflects the trustworthiness of each node is calculated and broadcasted by the intersection nodes. Specially, besides resisting the packet-discarding behavior of selfish nodes, this protocol also includes a location detection process to resist the location-faking behavior of malicious nodes. As a result, the selfish nodes and the malicious nodes can be excluded from the network. In addition, compared with improved GPSR protocol, the presented one is able to resist one kind of reputation-faking attack and has better performance in simulation.

A study on hybrid trust evaluation model for identifying malicious behavior in mobile P2P

P2P network has been widely used because of advantages such as efficient use of network bandwidth, saving of computing resources, and quick information exchange. In particular, the infra that manages each nodes centrally in P2P network does not exist and each node is a structure performing the sender and receiver roles. The service applying P2P technique in MANET is increased because this structure is very similar to the structure of MANET. However, the reliability may be lower by providing an erroneous service from malicious nodes because the supervision of management for nodes participating in P2P does not perform. In this paper, we propose hybrid trust evaluation technique based on Trust Zone structure to improve the reliability between nodes. TZM node is elected for trust evaluation of member nodes internal each TrustZone. The certificate of member nodes is issued in the elected TZM and the information is stored in TZMT. The data transmission of malicious nodes is blocked by limiting the data transmission of nodes that do not issued the certificate. The reputation-based trust management technique was applied to perform the fair file transmission of nodes and block the behavior of selfish nodes. The excellent performance of the proposed technique in this paper was confirmed through experiments.

Incentive-Driven and Freshness-Aware Content Dissemination in Selfish Opportunistic Mobile Networks

Recently, the content-based publish/subscribe (pub/sub) paradigm has been gaining popularity in opportunistic mobile networks (OppNets) for its flexibility and adaptability. Since nodes in OppNets are controlled by humans, they often behave selfishly. Therefore, stimulating nodes in selfish OppNets to collect, store, and share contents efficiently is one of the key challenges. Meanwhile, guaranteeing the freshness of contents is also a big problem for content dissemination in OppNets. In this paper, in order to solve these problems, we propose an incentive-driven and freshness-aware pub/sub Content Dissemination scheme, called ConDis , for selfish OppNets. In ConDis , the Tit-For-Tat (TFT) scheme is employed to deal with selfish behaviors of nodes in OppNets. Moreover, a novel content exchange protocol is proposed when nodes are in contact. Specifically, during each contact, the exchange order is determined by the content utility, which represents the usefulness of a content for a certain node, and the objective of nodes is to maximize the utility of the content inventory stored in their buffer. Extensive realistic trace-driven simulation results show that ConDis is superior to other existing schemes in terms of total freshness value, total delivered contents, and total transmission cost.