ABSTRACT Adolescence is marked by major changes in self-regulation, goal pursuit, and brain function. Regulatory focus theory (RFT) distinguishes between promotion and prevention self-regulatory systems, activated by ideal and ought goals, respectively. These systems have been studied in adults using fMRI; however, adolescent-specific patterns of activation are not yet well understood. In a normative adult sample, observed shared and unique regions of activation associated with idiographically assessed promotion vs. prevention priming, as well as variations in BOLD response depending on whether participants believed they were or were not making progress attaining the goal. In the present developmental extension, we examined whether adolescents exhibited neural activation patterns in response to ideal and ought priming consistent with adult findings. We measured brain activation during goal priming in 47 healthy adolescents (ages 13–17). Analyses revealed a linear increase in BOLD response to personally meaningful (vs. yoked control) goal-related adjectives across repeated priming blocks in regions including the medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, and precuneus – regions associated with self-referential processing and regulatory focus. These results suggest that adolescents recruit neural circuits associated with self-relevant cognition in response to promotion and prevention goals.

Group values modulate ingroup bias in self-referential processing: Evidence from event-related potentials.

This study examined the educational effectiveness of combining hazard-mechanism explanations and evacuation instructions in tsunami-related video messages, using both behavioral and neural measures. University students were assigned to one of four groups (mechanism, evacuation, combination, or control) and exposed to video materials while undergoing fMRI. The educational effect was assessed by changes in evacuation intent in a scenario-based decision-making task before and after video exposure. Results showed that all tsunami-related video groups had higher increases in evacuation intent than the control group, confirming that both mechanism and evacuation content were effective. However, the combined condition did not produce additional behavioral benefits. Neuroimaging analysis revealed diminished activation in five cortical regions related to self-referential processing (posterior cingulate cortex (PCC)), visual processing (lingual gyrus and inferior occipital gyrus), and auditory processing (bilateral superior temporal gurus) in the combination group compared to the evacuation-only group. Importantly, PCC activity was positively correlated with increased evacuation intent, suggesting its role as a neural index of educational effectiveness. These findings indicate that although hazard-mechanism and evacuation-instruction videos are individually effective, their combination may impose cognitive load that undermines self-referential processing and reduces neural engagement. Implications for the design of disaster education materials highlight the importance of balancing informational richness with cognitive processing demands to optimize preparedness outcomes.

Neural correlates of social processing in major depressive disorder: A coordinate-based Meta-analysis of task-related functional magnetic resonance imaging studies.

Mechanisms of rumination in depression: neuroendocrine dysregulation, circadian disruption, and therapeutic interventions.

Communication apprehension is a common fear related to social situations and is thought to be linked to negative self-evaluation. However, the neuroanatomical mechanisms underlying communication apprehension, both in general communication apprehension and in specific communication contexts (such as interpersonal communication, group discussion, meetings and public speaking), have not been fully explored. Our study used voxel-based morphometry to investigate the relationship between gray and white matter volumes and communication apprehension in a large sample of university students (n = 647, age = 19.66 ± 1.35, 468 females). We found that communication apprehension was highest in public speaking compared to the other three communication contexts. General communication apprehension was associated with gray matter volume in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the right anterior temporal gyrus, both of which are part of the default mode network and are believed to be involved in self-referential processing. The four specific contexts also exhibited associations with certain brain regions and shared similarities with general communication apprehension. Additionally, we identified a unique association of communication apprehension in the public speaking with reduced corpus callosum volume. These findings provide insights into the neural correlates of communication apprehension and suggest that interventions aiming at improving self-evaluation may help alleviate communication apprehension in young adults.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-34598-9.

Escitalopram normalizes decreased left inferior frontal gyrus activation in social anxiety disorder during self-referential processing.

Neural mechanisms underlying the depression-reducing effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction in university students: A Rs-fMRI study.

Accessibility model of overgeneral autobiographical memory.

Self-report questionnaires are widely used across psychology and related disciplines, yet the cognitive and neural processes underlying how individuals generate responses to such items remain poorly understood. Here, we investigated whether items from the same psychological scale evoke similar neural activation patterns in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), a region consistently implicated in self-referential processing. While undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 32 participants completed a self-reference task in which they judged how well 72 personality-related questionnaire items (e.g., from the Big Five, emotion regulation, and well-being scales) described themselves. Using representational similarity analysis (RSA), we found that items from the same scale elicited more similar multivoxel activation patterns in the mPFC compared to items from different scales. This effect was specific to the self-reference task and was not observed during a semantic judgment control task using the same items. Furthermore, the mPFC encoded not only categorical scale membership but also a small but consistent graded component of psychological similarity among scales, as reflected in inter-scale behavioral correlations. Importantly, these effects remained significant even after controlling for sentence-level semantic similarity using multiple regression RSA, indicating that the observed neural structure reflects psychological rather than linguistic similarity. These findings suggest that the mPFC integrates internally constructed evidence in a construct-sensitive manner during self-report. They also provide insight into how psychological assessment corresponds to neural representation.

Bidirectional associations between self-referential processing and depressive symptoms in early adolescents: A two-wave EEG study☆

Neuroticism is characterized by emotional instability and increased susceptibility to stress-related disorders. While traditionally treated as a unitary construct, growing evidence suggests that neuroticism is heterogeneous in both its genetic basis and its effects on social and health outcomes. To quantify this heterogeneity at the neurofunctional level, we analyzed resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) in a large sample (n = 33,180) from the UK Biobank dataset. Using machine learning regression analysis, we identified RSFC patterns associated with item-level responses from the neuroticism scale of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. The pattern of RSFC associations across questionnaire items reflected genetically defined clusters (Worry and Depressed Affect), showing a significant correlation (r = 0.767, p < 0.001). It also aligned with psychometrically derived factors (Anxiety/Tension and Worry/Vulnerability), reflecting a factor structure consistent with prior psychological studies. These findings were replicated in a separate MRI scan session from the UK biobank dataset. Associated connectivity was primarily observed in cognitive control, sensory integration, and self-referential processing networks. These neurofunctional signatures position RSFC as a robust intermediate phenotype, bridging genetic predisposition for neuroticism and psychological states. This framework could enhance precision in predicting psychiatric vulnerability and inform tailored therapeutic interventions.

The self-reference effect (SRE) describes enhanced memory and perception for self-related information. Using a perceptual matching paradigm across three experiments, this study examined the SRE and two associated phenomena in a Chinese sample: self-retention (difficulty updating self-associations) and self-obstruction (interference from self-cues). Study 1 established the basic SRE, revealing comparable advantages for self and friend-related information. Study 2 demonstrated self-retention through performance costs during rule-switching, while Study 3 identified self-obstruction via distraction from task-irrelevant self-cues. A 15-minute mindfulness intervention attenuated all three effects by enhancing processing efficiency for stranger-related stimuli rather than suppressing self-prioritization. These findings suggest mindfulness mitigates SRE through attentional reorientation from self to others, offering new insights into modifiable mechanisms of self-referential processing.

Individuals vary substantially in their responses to rewarding events and their motivation to pursue rewards. While the ventral striatum (VS) plays a central role in reward anticipation, its functional connectivity with the default mode network (DMN)—critical for self-referential processing and value integration—potentially represents a key mechanism through which trait differences manifest in reward-related behavior. Here, we examine how trait reward sensitivity and state-level behavioral motivation relate to connectivity between the DMN and VS during reward anticipation. Forty-six participants completed the Monetary Incentive Delay task while undergoing fMRI, with trial types reflecting varying levels of reward and loss salience. Behavioral motivation, indexed by reaction time modulation across high-stakes and low-stakes trials, and self-report measures of anticipatory pleasure and reward sensitivity were assessed. Reward sensitivity interacted with anticipatory pleasure to predict behavioral motivation, such that individuals with higher anticipatory pleasure showed weaker behavioral motivation when reward sensitivity was greater, while those with lower anticipatory pleasure showed stonger behavioral motivation when reward sensitivity was greater. Critically, during high-stakes trials, reward sensitivity was associated with stronger DMN-VS connectivity in highly motivated individuals and weaker connectivity in less motivated participants. This moderation effect was consistent across gain and loss contexts, though with distinct directionality patterns. These findings provide novel insights into the neural correlates of individual differences in reward processing, demonstrating that trait reward sensitivity, anticipatory pleasure, and behavioral motivation are associated with distinct patterns of DMN-VS interactions during reward anticipation. These findings highlight the importance of considering motivational context when investigating reward-related neural mechanisms.

Mindfulness on the brain: a review of structural and functional MRI findings in mindfulness-based stress reduction.

Beyond behavior: neural and cognitive alterations in eating disorders-a systematic review.

Expertise-related functional connectivity changes in Chinese calligraphy linked to flow experience.

BackgroundThe characteristic brain function and network activity patterns in adolescents with first-episode depression (FED) remain systematically underexplored. This study aims to investigate abnormalities in cerebral function and networks in adolescent FED patients through analyses of the amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (ALFF), fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (fALFF), and independent component analysis (ICA).Materials and methodsA cohort of 36 adolescents with first-episode depression (patient group, PT) and 34 healthy controls (HC group) were enrolled. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD) and Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI). All participants underwent resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI). Neuronal activity and functional network alterations were analyzed via ALFF, fALFF, and ICA methodologies.ResultsCompared to the HC group, the PT group exhibited increased ALFF values in the left fusiform gyrus (Fusiform_L), left middle temporal gyrus (Temporal_Mid_L), right middle occipital gyrus (Occipital_Mid_R), right middle temporal gyrus (Temporal_Mid_R), right calcarine cortex (Calcarine_R), right angular gyrus (Angular_R), and left calcarine cortex (Calcarine_L). Elevated fALFF values were observed in the right calcarine cortex (Calcarine_R) and left superior temporal gyrus (Temporal_Sup_L), while decreased fALFF values were detected in the left superior temporal pole (Temporal_Pole_Sup_L), right medial superior frontal gyrus (Frontal_Sup_Medial_R), left superior frontal gyrus (Frontal_Sup_L), and left precuneus (Precuneus_L). Connectivity differences within the visual network (VIN) were identified between groups, with a peak difference in the right inferior temporal gyrus (Temporal_Inf_R), where the PT group demonstrated hyperconnectivity.ConclusionIn summary, neurofunctional abnormalities in adolescent FED patients involve the temporal lobe emotion-processing network, prefrontal executive control system, and default mode network (DMN). Aberrant low-frequency activity in the temporal pole and superior frontal gyrus may exacerbate emotion dysregulation, whereas hyperactivation of the precuneus and visual cortex could potentiate negative self-referential processing. Notably, the right middle occipital gyrus may represent a distinctive biomarker of adolescent depression. These findings provide novel insights into the early neural mechanisms underlying adolescent depression and suggest that non-invasive neuromodulation techniques targeting specific brain regions (e.g., transcranial magnetic stimulation, TMS) hold therapeutic potential.

Inside the Wandering Mind: Self-Referential Processing and Spontaneous Thoughts in Individuals Vulnerable to Depression

BackgroundChildhood psychological maltreatment is considered one of the most severe risk factors for developing psychopathological issues in adulthood. Previous studies have preliminarily indicated that psychological maltreatment disrupts the quality of mother–child relationships, but it remains unclear whether this negative impact extends to cognitive processes.MethodsThis study examined the impact of childhood psychological maltreatment on the subjective emotional connection and objective cognitive differentiation between self and mother. The Child Psychological Maltreatment Scale was used to select 35 participants in the maltreatment group and 35 controls. The Inclusion of Other in the Self Scale was used to assess the subjective connection between self and mother. Two experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of psychological maltreatment on cognitive differentiation at the perceptual and memory levels. Experiment 1 used a self-perceptual matching task to assess the impact of maltreatment on the processing of different referential information. Experiment 2 employed the Remember/Know task to examine the influence of emotional valence and referential type on personality trait word recognition.ResultsThe CPMS negatively predicted IOS scores, indicating that psychological maltreatment reduced the subjective connection between self and mother. Perceptual and memory experimental results showed that, compared to the control group, the psychological maltreatment group did not exhibit impaired cognitive differentiation between self and mother. At the memory level, the self-referential and mother-referential effects were stronger in the maltreatment group than in the control group, but were not modulated by emotion. Emotional modulation appeared in the control group’s preference for negative emotions.ConclusionsWhile experiences of psychological maltreatment during childhood may subjectively reduce the emotional connection between self and mother, they may not impair cognitive differentiation between self- and mother-related information at the perceptual and memory levels, nor do they exhibit a negativity preference at the memory level. This study provides new evidence for understanding the mechanisms through which childhood psychological maltreatment influences self-cognitive functions in adulthood.