Search And Rescue Incidents Research Articles

Search and rescue incidents among persons 65years and older in the USA: Examination of factors associated with death.

Older people are vulnerable to becoming lost from home, especially if alone and in unfamiliar environments. Incidents of older persons becoming lost are frequently reported and often requiring a search and rescue (SAR) response. Becoming lost is distressing to the person concerned, their carer, and family and may result in physical injury and/or death. This study examined what factors are associated with death among older persons reported lost from home. A retrospective cross-sectional study. Data were obtained from the International Search and Rescue Incident Database from 1985 to 2013. Participants comprised persons aged 65years and older living in the United States. Individual, SAR incident, and environmental factors were analysed. The primary outcome of this study was lost person found alive or found dead on arrival. Relationships between categorical variables and outcome were summarised with contingency tables, chi-squared test p-values (or Fisher's-exact-test), and odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Association between continuous variables and outcome were examined using multiple logistic regression. p-value of <0.05 was considered significant. Among the 5242 SAR incidents, 1703 met the inclusion criteria, of which 87.8% (n=1495) were found alive and 12.2% (n=208) were found dead. Factors associated with death included: male gender (OR 1.46; CI 1.01-2.13; p=0.048), cognitively intact (OR 0.32; CI 0.22-0.47; p<0.001), prolonged SAR duration (OR: 1.028; CI: 1.021-1.035; p<0.001), found in water/wetlands (OR 7.40; CI 3.37-16.24; p<0.001), and extreme weather (OR: 2.06; 95% CI: 1.10-3.86; p=0.024). Older people have a fundamental human right to protection from preventable deaths. Findings indicate these rights are not being protected with deaths occurring frequently among older people who have become lost from home. To minimise fatalities, knowledge of factors associated with death could inform the development suitable assessment and intervention strategies for SAR teams and caregivers.

An agent-based model reveals lost person behavior based on data from wilderness search and rescue

Thousands of people are reported lost in the wilderness in the United States every year and locating these missing individuals as rapidly as possible depends on coordinated search and rescue (SAR) operations. As time passes, the search area grows, survival rate decreases, and searchers are faced with an increasingly daunting task of searching large areas in a short amount of time. To optimize the search process, mathematical models of lost person behavior with respect to landscape can be used in conjunction with current SAR practices. In this paper, we introduce an agent-based model of lost person behavior which allows agents to move on known landscapes with behavior defined as independent realizations of a random variable. The behavior random variable selects from a distribution of six known lost person reorientation strategies to simulate the agent’s trajectory. We systematically simulate a range of possible behavior distributions and find a best-fit behavioral profile for a hiker with the International Search and Rescue Incident Database. We validate these results with a leave-one-out analysis. This work represents the first time-discrete model of lost person dynamics validated with data from real SAR incidents and has the potential to improve current methods for wilderness SAR.

CAUSES FOR SEARCH AND RESCUE IN ROCK CLIMBING ACCIDENTS IN POLISH TATRA MOUNTAINS – A 5-YEAR SURVEY

Aim: To review Tatra MRT (Mountain Rescue Team) SAR (search and rescue) events reported by rescuers in the study period of 2015-2019 (5-year survey) in terms of the profile of the injured, types of injuries, causes identified by MRT rescuers in reference to the NACA ICAR (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics – International Committee for Alpine Rescue) score. Material and methods: A study was conducted on Tatra MRT reports, regarding RC (rock climbing), from 2015 through 2019. Reports included information on the trauma, possible causes, accompanying weather conditions and actions that were taken. The study group consisted of 174 report with a median age of 32.5 years (IQ I-III – 27–41) comprising 137 men and 37 women. Results: Our study revealed that there was no relation between RC SAR reported by Tatra MRT rescuers and age or sex. Apart from one – the fall from heights, causes were also not related with age or sex. According to our study older people were more likely to sustain a trauma as a result of a fall from heights (34 vs 31, p=0.009). We found that 42% of the victims did not sustain any actual trauma (NACA ICAR=0). According to the rescuers these cases were significantly more likely to be associated with the lack of skills or inadequate equipment (p&lt;0.001). Conclusions: RC incidents constitute a small percentage of SAR operations by Tatra MRT. Almost half of RC SAR incidents is not associated with an actual trauma.

The Associations Between Visitation, Social Media Use, and Search and Rescue in United States National Parks.

Search and rescue (SAR) is vital for visitor safety in US national parks, which are popular destinations for tourists. Previous studies have described SAR and seasonal visitation patterns, but not in the context of overall visitation. In addition, studies on the association between SAR and developed park areas remain limited. Concurrently, social media can be valuable for sharing information about conservation awareness and the joy of being outdoors. However, social media can potentially be an avenue for users to share risky and dangerous behaviors performed during attempts to obtain photos and videos. The associations between SAR and social media have not been discussed in existing literature. Variables included recreational visits, developed site stay visits, backcountry visits, SAR incidents, and tweets. Data from 2017 were obtained from National Park Service visitor use statistics, the SAR incident dashboard, and the University of California, Irvine, Cloudberry application. Correlation analysis was performed using nonparametric Kendall rank correlation coefficients. Recreational visits were correlated with SAR incidents (rτ=0.415, P<0.001). Developed site stays were similarly correlated with SAR incidents (rτ=0.447, P<0.001), as were backcountry visits (rτ=0.428, P<0.001). Backcountry visits had a stronger correlation with fatalities (rτ=0.380, P<0.001) compared to developed site stays (rτ=0.304, P<0.001). Tweets were correlated with SAR incidents (rτ=0.468, P<0.001), recreational visits (rτ=0.403, P<0.001), and fatalities (rτ=0.367, P<0.001). Our findings demonstrate associations between national park visitation, SAR incidents, fatalities, and Twitter use and provides a concept framework for future prospective studies to further investigate the relationships between visitation, SAR, and social media.

Sensitivity of Skill Score Metric to Validate Lagrangian Simulations in Coastal Areas: Recommendations for Search and Rescue Applications

Search and rescue (SAR) modeling applications, mostly based on Lagrangian tracking particle algorithms, rely on the accuracy of met-ocean forecast models. Skill assessment methods are therefore required to evaluate the performance of ocean models in predicting particle trajectories. The Skill Score (SS), based on the Normalized Cumulative Lagrangian Separation (NCLS) distance between simulated and satellite-tracked drifter trajectories, is a commonly used metric. However, its applicability in coastal areas, where most of the SAR incidents occur, is difficult and sometimes unfeasible, because of the high variability that characterizes the coastal dynamics and the lack of drifter observations. In this study, we assess the performance of four models available in the Ibiza Channel (Western Mediterranean Sea) and evaluate the applicability of the SS in such coastal risk-prone regions seeking for a functional implementation in the context of SAR operations. We analyze the SS sensitivity to different forecast horizons and examine the best way to quantify the average model performance, to avoid biased conclusions. Our results show that the SS increases with forecast time in most cases. At short forecast times (i.e., 6 h), the SS exhibits a much higher variability due to the short trajectory lengths observed compared to the separation distance obtained at timescales not properly resolved by the models. However, longer forecast times lead to the overestimation of the SS due to the high variability of the surface currents. Findings also show that the averaged SS, as originally defined, can be misleading because of the imposition of a lower limit value of zero. To properly evaluate the averaged skill of the models, a revision of its definition, the so-called SS∗, is recommended. Furthermore, whereas drifters only provide assessment along their drifting paths, we show that trajectories derived from high-frequency radar (HFR) effectively provide information about the spatial distribution of the model performance inside the HFR coverage. HFR-derived trajectories could therefore be used for complementing drifter observations. The SS is, on average, more favorable to coarser-resolution models because of the double-penalty error, whereas higher-resolution models show both very low and very high performance during the experiments.

Impact of a Half Dome Cable Permitting Process on Search and Rescue Activity, Hiker Mortality Rates, and Operational Costs Above Little Yosemite Valley

The summit of Yosemite's Half Dome is reached using cable handrails for the final 146 m (480 ft). Access to these cables was restricted to users with permits in 2010. The authors aim to describe the impact of permitting on search and rescue (SAR) in the region of the park most affected by permitting. An observational study from 2005 to 2009 and 2011 to 2015 comparing the number of incidents, major incidents (exceeding $500), victims, and fatalities before and after permitting the use of cable handrails on Half Dome in the area above Little Yosemite Valley (LYV) and parkwide. Each year was analyzed separately with t tests and Mann-Whitney U tests. Data are presented as mean±SD. The number of hikers in the study area was reduced by up to 66% by permitting. Above LYV from 2005 to 2009, there were 85 SAR incidents, 134 victims, 8 fatalities, 38 major incidents, and annual SAR costs of $44,582±28,972. From 2011 to 2015, the same area saw 54 SAR incidents, 156 victims, 4 fatalities, 35 major incidents, and annual SAR costs of $27,027±19,586. No parameter showed statistical significance. Parkwide SAR incidents decreased from 232 to 198 annual incidents (P=0.013) during the same time period, with parkwide mortality increasing from 8 to 12 deaths annually (P=0.045). SAR incidents, victims, fatalities, or costs above LYV did not decrease after cable handrail permitting. Parkwide SAR activity decreased during the same intervals. This strongly suggests that overcrowding is not the key factor influencing safety on Half Dome. This discordant trend warrants close observation over 5 to 10 y.

Apostle Islands National Lakeshore: A Review of Search and Rescue and Emergency Medical Services Operations, 2006–2015

Apostle Islands National Lakeshore (APIS) lies at the northern tip of Wisconsin and is home to a network of 21 islands along Lake Superior. The goal of this report is to investigate search and rescue (SAR) and emergency medical services (EMS) trends at APIS in an effort to improve visitor safety and resource allocation. This study is a retrospective analysis reviewing APIS SAR reports and annual EMS summary reports from January 1, 2006, to December 31, 2015. Information related to incident type, incident date, individual demographic characteristics and activities, injury/illness type, cost, and contributing factors were recorded and analyzed in frequency tables. From 2006 to 2015, APIS SAR conducted 133 total missions assisting 261 individuals-200 not injured/ill, 57 injured/ill, and 4 fatalities. Median cost per SAR incident involving aircraft totaled $21,695 (range: $2,993-141,849), whereas incidents not involving aircraft had a median cost of $363 (range: $35-8,830). Nonmotorized boating was the most common activity resulting in SAR incidents. All 4 fatalities were attributed to drowning while kayaking or swimming. Cold-related injury/illness accounted for nearly half of all injuries/illnesses (45%) with the most commonly reported contributing factor being high winds. EMS responded to a total of 134 incidents. Trauma and first aid accounted for 43% and 34% of EMS workload, respectively. Overall, this study highlights the hazards associated with the frigid and rough conditions of Lake Superior. The reported results aim to help APIS personnel more saliently convey risks to visitors and plan appropriately in an effort to decrease the need for future rescues.

Apostle Islands National Lakeshore: a Review of Search and Rescue and Emergency Medical Services Operations, 2006–2015

Apostle Islands National Lakeshore (APIS) lies at the northern tip of Wisconsin and is home to a network of 21 islands along Lake Superior. The goal of this report is to investigate emergency medical services (EMS) and search-and-rescue (SAR) trends at APIS in an effort to improve visitor safety and resource allocation. This study is a retrospective analysis reviewing APIS SAR Reports and Annual EMS Summary Reports from January 1, 2006 to December 31, 2015. Information related to incident type, incident time, individual demographics and activities, injury/illness type, cost, and contributing factors were recorded and analyzed in frequency tables. EMS analysis was limited to incident type. From 2006 to 2015, APIS SAR conducted 133 total missions assisting 261 individuals: 57 injured/ill, 200 not injured/ill, 4 fatalities, and 25 documented saves. SAR incidents cost $3439 on average, most frequently occurred during August and on Saturdays. Nonmotorized boating was the most common activity resulting in SAR incidents. Hypothermia/cold exposure accounted for over half of all injuries/illnesses (45.0%). The most frequently reported contributing factor was wind. EMS responded to a total of 85 incidents with the majority of the EMS incidents involving first aid (40.0%). Overall, this study highlights the hazards associated with the frigid, rough, and unpredictable conditions of Lake Superior. The results of this report will allow APIS personnel to more saliently convey risks to visitors in an effort to decrease the need for future rescues.

The role of environmental factors in search and rescue incidents in Nunavut, Canada

ObjectivesUnintentional injury is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in Nunavut, where the importance of land-based activities and reliance on semi-permanent trails create unique risk profiles. Climate change is believed to be exacerbating these risks, although no studies have quantitatively examined links between environmental conditions and injury and distress in the Canadian Arctic. We examine the correlation between environmental conditions and land-based search and rescue (SAR) incidents across Nunavut. Study designCase study. MethodsCase data were acquired from the Canadian National Search and Rescue Secretariat. Gasoline sales from across the territory are then used to model land-use and exposure. We compare weather and ice conditions during 202 SAR incidents to conditions during 755 non-SAR days (controls) between 2013 and 2014. ResultsWe show daily ambient temperature, ice concentration, ice thickness, and variation in types of ice to be correlated with SAR rates across the territory during the study period. ConclusionsThese conditions are projected to be affected by future climate change, which could increase demand for SAR and increase injury rates in the absence of targeted efforts aimed at prevention and treatment. This study provides health practitioners and public health communities with clearer understanding to prepare, respond to, and prevent injuries across the Arctic.

Epidemiology of Search and Rescue in Baxter State Park: Dangers of Descent and Fatigue

The purpose of this study was to determine the epidemiology of injury in Baxter State Park, Maine, and to better tailor search and rescue (SAR) resources, personnel, and training to acute needs in the park. We conducted a retrospective review of all SAR incident reports in Baxter State Park from July 1992 through June 2014. For each event, demographics, location, time, activity before the incident, incident details, and evacuation means were recorded and analyzed. In all, 754 incidents of SAR or medical need were identified. Mean age was 38.9 years; mean age for subjects with fatigue as the primary complaint was 48.7 years. A majority (60.5%) of victims were male. Nineteen fatalities occurred during the study. Traumatic injuries precipitated 51% of SAR incidents, and an additional 30% were initiated for late or lost parties. Slips or falls while hiking were the most common causes of injury (67%), with the lower extremity being the most common injury site (31%). When applicable, 84.4% of acute need occurred while descending, as opposed to ascending, a mountain. Fatigue was the most commonly reported medical emergency, causative in 66% of medical SAR events. Fatigue is a major factor in SAR events, both as a discreet cause and as a contributor to other injuries. Search and rescue need is more likely to occur during mountain descent, and lower extremity injuries are the most common etiology. Efforts should be focused on training rescuers in lower extremity and fatigue treatment, and more rescuers should be available when many are descending.

Investigating Environmental Determinants of Injury and Trauma in the Canadian North

Unintentional injury and trauma rates are disproportionately high in Inuit regions, and environmental changes are predicted to exacerbate injury rates. However, there is a major gap in our understanding of the risk factors contributing to land-based injury and trauma in the Arctic. We investigated the role of environmental and other factors in search and rescue (SAR) incidents in a remote Inuit community in northern Canada using a collaborative mixed methods approach. We analyzed SAR records from 1995 to 2010 and conducted key consultant interviews in 2010 and 2011. Data showed an estimated annual SAR incidence rate of 19 individuals per 1,000. Weather and ice conditions were the most frequent contributing factor for cases. In contrast with other studies, intoxication was the least common factor associated with SAR incidents. The incidence rate was six times higher for males than females, while land-users aged 26–35 had the highest incidence rate among age groups. Thirty-four percent of individuals sustained physical health impacts. Results demonstrate that environmental conditions are critical factors contributing to physical health risk in Inuit communities, particularly related to travel on sea ice during winter. Age and gender are important risk factors. This knowledge is vital for informing management of land-based physical health risk given rapidly changing environmental conditions in the Arctic.

Georeferencing Incidents from Locality Descriptions and its Applications: a Case Study from Yosemite National Park Search and Rescue

AbstractThe Search and Rescue (SAR) of individuals who become lost, injured, or stranded in wilderness presents a unique and worthwhile spatiotemporal challenge to investigate. Once incidents are georeferenced they can be spatially queried and analyzed. However, one major challenge for evaluating SAR in a spatial context is the lack of explicitly spatial data (addresses or coordinates) for historic incidents; they must be georeferenced from textual descriptions. This study implemented two established approaches for georeferencing incidents, the ‘Point‐Radius’ and ‘Shape’ methods. Incorporating uncertainty measurements into a spatial database allows for more appropriate analyses of spatial dependence and the spatial distribution of incidents. From 2005–2010, 1,271 of 1,356 Yosemite Search and Rescue YOSAR incidents (93.7%) could be georeferenced using the Point‐Radius Method, with a mean uncertainty radius = 560 ± 51 m and mean uncertainty area of 3.60 ± 0.840 km2. However, when the Shape Method was applied to six case studies by considering the reference object shape, the uncertainty areas were reduced considerably (by up to 99.5% of the uncertain area generated by the Point‐Radius Method). This is the first spatially‐explicit study of SAR incidents and yields valuable insights into the role of georeferenced data in emergency preparedness.

A multiobjective coverage‐based model for Civilian search and rescue

AbstractThe Civil Air Search and Rescue Association (CASARA) is a Canada‐wide volunteer aviation association that provides air search support services to the Canadian National Search and Rescue (SAR) program. As with any emergency service provider, the locations of CASARA units greatly impact their overall effectiveness. In this article, the optimal location of CASARA units is formulated as a multiobjective maximal covering location problem. The model addresses the objectives of maximizing the coverage, minimizing the number of units, and maximizing the backup coverage of SAR incidents within Canada. A multigender genetic algorithm is proposed to determine a set of nondominated CASARA location configurations. Results are compared with solutions found using commercial integer programming software. It is shown that the nondominated genetic algorithm solutions are near‐optimal. These are determined in much less time than comparable solutions using commercial integer programming software. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.* Naval Research Logistics, 2011

A Constraint Optimization Approach for the Allocation of Multiple Search Units in Search and Rescue Operations

Search and Rescue (SAR) comprises the search for and provision of aid to persons who are, or who are feared to be, in distress or in imminent danger of loss of life. Time is a crucial factor for survivors who must be found quickly and search planning may get complex in the case of a large search area and multiple search resources. The problem we address in this paper is that of defining and assigning multiple non-overlapping rectangular sub-areas to search units (search aircraft) such that the search plan is operationally feasible and the total probability of success is maximized. We present algorithms we developed for the search resources allocation problem for aeronautical SAR incidents when multiple indivisible searchers are present. These algorithms are based on classical search theory and on constraint programming. We assume that the search effort is continuous and measured by track length, that the search object is stationary and that search is conducted in discrete space. We present experimental results for a realistic SAR case overland.

Dead Men Walking: Search and Rescue in US National Parks

To identify search and rescue (SAR) trends in US National Park Service (NPS) units. A retrospective review of the US National Park Service Annual Search and Rescue Reports from 1992 to 2007 and the SAR statistics for all NPS units in 2005. From 1992 to 2007 there were 78,488 individuals involved in 65,439 SAR incidents. These incidents ended with 2659 fatalities, 24,288 ill or injured individuals, and 13,212 saves. On average there were 11.2 SAR incidents each day at an average cost of $895 per operation. Total SAR costs from 1992 to 2007 were $58,572 164. In 2005, 50% of the 2430 SAR operations occurred in just 5 NPS units. Grand Canyon National Park (307) and Gateway National Recreation Area (293) reported the most SAR operations. Yosemite National Park accounted for 25% of the total NPS SAR costs ($1.2 million); Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve ($29,310) and Denali National Park and Preserve ($18,345) had the highest average SAR costs. Hiking (48%) and boating (21%) were the most common activities requiring SAR assistance. Hiking (22.8%), suicides (12.1%), swimming (10.1%), and boating (10.1%) activities were the most common activities resulting in fatalities. Without the presence of NPS personnel responding to SAR incidents, 1 in 5 (20%) of those requesting SAR assistance would be a fatality. Future research and the development of any prevention efforts should focus on the 5 NPS units where 50% of all SAR incidents are occurring.

Search and Rescue Trends and the Emergency Medical Service Workload in Utah's National Parks

To identify the emergency medical service (EMS) workload and trends associated with search and rescue (SAR) operations in Utah's National Park Service (NPS) units. Data for this study were collected from the Annual Emergency Medical Services Report and the Annual Search and Rescue Report for National Park Service units in Utah from 2001-2005. There were 4762 EMS incidents reported between 2001 and 2005, including 79 fatalities (50 traumatic; 29 nontraumatic). The most common EMS transportation method was ground (1505) and helicopter (553) transport. The heaviest trauma, medical, and cardiac workload was at Glen Canyon National Recreation Area (GLCA) and the heaviest first aid workload was at Zion National Park (ZION). There were 1190 SAR operations between 2001 and 2005 involving 67 fatalities, 623 ill or injured visitors, 1813 non-ill or non-injured visitors, and 92 saves. GLCA and ZION accounted for 47% and 21% of all SAR operations. The total cost of SAR operations was $1 363 920. SAR operations most commonly occurred on weekends, involved male visitors (59%), visitors aged 20-29 years (23%), and 40-49 years (20%), and visitors participating in day hiking (221), motorized boating (196), and canyoneering (98) activities. Most SAR operations were in lake (226), desert (147), and canyon (140) environments and were resolved within 24 hours. GLCA and ZION experienced heavy use of EMS resources that should be noted by EMS administrators and planners. GLCA and ZION also reported the most SAR operations. The development of techniques to prevent the need for SAR at GLCA and ZION would likely have the most potential to reduce the financial impact of SAR incidents and morbidity and mortality to visitors.

Search and Rescue in Yosemite National Park: A 10-Year Review

To describe the general characteristics and epidemiology of search and rescue (SAR) in Yosemite National Park (YNP) and identify possible areas for intervention directed at reduction in use of these services. Yosemite Search and Rescue (YOSAR) personnel record every search and rescue mission on a Search and Rescue Incident Report. The information contained in these reports was used to perform a retrospective review of all SAR missions within YNP during the 10-year study period between January 1990 and December 1999. YOSAR performed 1912 SAR missions, assisting 2327 individuals and recording 2077 injuries and illnesses. Popular trails in and around Yosemite Valley collectively accounted for 25% of all individuals needing SAR services. Lower extremity injuries and dehydration/hypovolemia/hunger were commonly identified reasons to need SAR services. The duration of SAR missions averaged 5 hours, used 12 SAR personnel, and cost $4400. Helicopter was the primary mode of transport in 28% of SAR incidents. There were 112 fatalities, yielding a SAR case fatality rate of 4.8%. The majority of fatalities occurred while hiking/snowshoeing, with falling the most common mechanism of lethal injury. Day-hikers in and around Yosemite Valley use a large portion of SAR services, with lower extremity injuries and dehydration/hypovolemia/hunger the most common reasons. It seems reasonable to direct future intervention to prevention of these commonly identified problems in this particular population of Park visitors.