Sea Project Research Articles

Mangroves trend and their impact on surface temperature in Al-Wajh Lagoon: a study aligned with Saudi Arabia's vision 2030

Mangrove ecosystems are vital to arid environments like Saudi Arabia, offering crucial ecological services and enhancing biodiversity. This study investigates the spatial distribution and temporal dynamics of mangrove coverage in the Al Wajh lagoon area, crucial for crafting effective conservation and management strategies. Employing high-resolution Landsat and Sentinel imagery, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Land Surface Temperature (LST) were analysed across 35 mangrove clusters. By 2023, mangroves covered approximately 24.5 km2. Kendall Tau-b Correlation Coefficients confirmed a significant positive trend. The study further explored the relationship between NDVI and surface temperature, revealing an inverse correlation with slope values ranging from −4.03 to −44.1, suggesting that increased mangrove coverage significantly contributes to local cooling, thereby underscoring the climate regulation benefits of mangrove conservation. This positive change in NDVI post-2020 is directly attributable to the conservation efforts embedded within the Red Sea Project, Vision 2030, development phases, demonstrating the critical role of designated conservation zones in mitigating the environmental impacts of large-scale development projects. The findings underscore the need for targeted policies to protect and expand mangrove habitats as part of broader environmental sustainability goals in the region.

Comparing AlUla and The Red Sea Saudi Arabia’s Giga Projects on Tourism towards a Sustainable Change in Destination Development

This paper examines architecture for tourism, focusing on destination design. In the past forty years, tourism destinations and their impact have been affected and transformed by emerging topics such as the impact of social media and the necessity of sustainable indicators in the tourism industry. In the global panorama of ongoing tourism transformations, Saudi Arabia has recently established new governmental opening regulations that started in 2019 for visitors and tourist visa entry. The country is facing a rapidly transforming economy, and new destinations for tourism will impact the country’s growth in the coming years as part of the Sustainable Destination Program in alignment with the ambitious targets of the Saudi National Vision 2030. The adopted methodology of the study compares selected parameters of two significant Saudi Arabian case studies, AlUla and The Red Sea Project (TRSP), for the ongoing sustainable tourism destination development of planned tourist giga projects. According to the findings, AlUla and TRSP demonstrated an intense commitment to sustainable tourism through their efforts concerning protected areas, environmentally friendly transport, and significant rewilding and reforestation. The research’s conclusion emphasizes Saudi Arabia’s commitment to innovative thinking, long-term growth, and sustainable tourism. The study’s implication is primarily suited for destination design; it suggests potential applicability even in smaller-scale tourism development projects or additional comparisons in sustainability design approaches in diverse contexts, particularly in the MENA region.

A Disdain for Deserts: The Sahara Sea Project and Climatic Modification in North Africa, 1864–1885

A Disdain for Deserts: The Sahara Sea Project and Climatic Modification in North Africa, 1864–1885

Renewable energy scenarios for water desalination and conveyance: Case of red sea-dead sea project

The objective of the Jordan Red Sea-Dead Sea (RSDS) project is to transport desalinated water from the Gulf of Aqaba to the Dead Sea. It aims to resolve two fundamental issues in Jordan: the lack of potable water in the country's center and the low water level in the Dead Sea. Desalinated seawater should be pumped from the Gulf of Aqaba to the Dead Sea as part of the RSDS project.This study is not only the first study to focus on the feasibility of using renewable energy sources to meet the project's energy needs, but the approach taken in this research is also novel. It employs a variety of software packages in order to accomplish the research goals. Thus, a number of operational scenarios for the RSDS project employing renewable energy technologies, as these resources are essential for sustainable development, are proposed. Based on the availability of renewable energy sources in the project region, only solar and wind technologies are included in the technology selection process. The selection of a suitable technology from renewable energy technologies was based on eight scenarios that were developed using several selection criteria. The social, technical, environmental, risk evaluation, and financial impact scenarios were investigated. Analytic hierarchy process and multi-criteria decision analysis were utilized to evaluate the electricity generation options for the project. The results indicated that the economic scenario is the optimal scenario for covering the entire load. Levelized Cost Of Energy (LCOE) and payback period are sub-criteria for this scenario. The primary goal of this scenario is to cover the load with the lowest LCOE and shortest payback period possible. The results indicated that a 945 MW Photovoltaic plant and a 630 MW wind energy plant are required to cover the total loads for desalination and water pumping. Energy storage is essential in any scenario where renewable energy sources are used to meet demand. Electric vehicles are employed in this research as a kind of energy storage to lessen the demand for more traditional storage methods. The number of 85 kWh electric vehicles needed to replace traditional storage medium is estimated. It is determined that 53,614 and 57,584 electric vehicles in the 24 hour and 12 hour operating times, respectively, are required under the economic scenario.

A three-step approach for co-locating nature-based solutions within offshore wind farms

The extent of seabed licensed for offshore renewables is being expanded with the global requirement to reduce carbon emissions. The opportunity for Nature-based Solutions for restoration, conservation, mariculture, infrastructure protection, and carbon sequestration initiatives are being explored internationally. Co-location of marine renewable or structures with conservation initiatives offers the opportunity to support populations of threatened species and contribute to wider ecosystem services and benefits. Building on experience from a North Sea project, we explore the feasibility to co-locate bivalve species at offshore wind farms. We present a three-step approach to identify offshore wind farm sites with the potential to co-locate with compatible species within a marine licensed area, based on environmental and physical conditions and biological tolerances. These steps are, (1) information collection and data synthesis, (2) data analysis through site suitability and species compatibility assessments, and (3) numerical modelling approaches to test the feasibility of pilot studies and scale-up planned operations. This approach supports feasibility assessment by identification of sites where Nature-based Solution project success is more likely or certain, thereby reducing project costs and risk of failure. An example case study is provided using Gunfleet Sands offshore wind farm (southeast England) and the restoration and conservation of the commercially valuable European Flat Oyster (Ostrea edulis).

Massive-Scale Dissolution, Conveyance, and Disposal of Dead Sea Potash Industry Halite Waste.

The Dead Sea (DS) potash industry halite waste accumulation rate is estimated at 0.2 m year-1, across 140 km2 of evaporation ponds in Israel and Jordan, totaling ∼28 million m3 year-1. As accommodation in the southern DS basin space is nearly exhausted, it is planned in Israel to dredge newly precipitated salt and convey it in a solid state to the northern DS basin by constructing a 30 km conveyor to the northern DS basin where the salt will be disposed. Concerns regarding the environmental impacts of such massive undertaking led to the examination of alternative solutions. The alternative discussed in the paper, which takes into account the estimated halite waste volumes in Jordan as well, examines the feasibility for dissolution of the dredged halite and its transport in a dissolved state and disposal in the DS by seawater (SW) or desalination reject brine (RB) from the Red Sea─Dead Sea Project (RSDSP), if constructed. Results show that the high halite solubility in SW/RB and rapid dissolution kinetics are sufficiently fast to dispose of the dredged halite with the discussed volumes of the RSDSP. Thermodynamic calculations are presented to show that precipitation dynamics following the mixing of the Na+-Cl--loaded SW/RB with the DS brine could be controlled to avoid outsalting at the mixing point in the DS.

EFFECT OF THE LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THE TERRESTIAL NAVIGATION COURSE IN COMPETENCE PASSAGE PLANNING FOR CADETS WHO ARE CARRYING OUT SEA PROJECT ON BOARD

Terrestial Navigation is a harmonious union between science and art that teaches us how to sail a ship from one place to another safely, quickly, efficiently, and economically and safely to the destination. Passage Planning is the planning of ship voyages from one place to another safely, quickly and economically, and safely to the destination. Shipping from one port to another must be coordinated by all crew members. Politeknik Pelayaran Malahayati, which is a Technical Implementation Unit under the Ministry of Transportation, the Transportation HR Development Agency, which has the task of implementing Vocational Education, research, and Community Service in the field of Shipping, has organized a Diploma III Nautical Studies, Ship Engineering Studies, and Ship Electrical System Studies. This study aims to evaluate the influence of understanding Passage Planning Terrestial Navigation on the competence of cadets when doing Sea Project on board. The research method used is quantitative research with a sampling technique using purposive sampling on cadets at Voyage schools. Data was collected through questionnaires and regression analysis was used to test the hypothesis. The results of the study show that the understanding of Passage Planning in Terrestial Navigation has a significant effect on the competence of cadets when carrying out maritime practices on board. Therefore, it is suggested for Voyage schools improve the learning of Terrestial Navigation Passage Planning to increase the competence of cadets in carrying out maritime practices on board. The results of the study simultaneously obtained the value of Fcount > Ftable [29.008 > 2.513] at the significance level∝ = 5%, this states that simultaneously the variables Catalog & Nautical Chart (x1), Plotting Position (x2), Distance and Course Voyage Determination (x3), Voyage Planning Tabulation (x4), affect competence cadets during Sea Project on board at Politeknik Pelayaran Malahayati.

Herb Sector in Greece: Training Needs and Perspectives

The Greek flora is rich in native herbaceous plants and due to the Mediterranean climate, there are optimal climatic and soil conditions for their cultivation. Herbs play a very important role in the Greek rural economy and facilitate change in the national agro-food sector as it is still developing. In recent years, this sector has become an area of interest. Many farmers changed their old crops into new cultivations like herbs. This development requires investments, training programs, new studies, and projects in order to enrich the knowledge and skills of all the participants involved in the value chain. HEGO is a Black Sea Project, funded by the European Union, and one of its main goals is the modernization of enterprises associated with the cultivation, production, and promotion of diversified, sustainable, value-added herb products, as well as the enhancement of cross-border trade opportunities for local herb enterprises in participating Black Sea Basin countries (Greece, Moldova, Georgia, and Armenia). This paper explores the current situation of the herb sector in Greece regarding the cultivation, processing legislation, managerial issues, and the trade value of herb products. More specifically, its purpose is to investigate the current skills and expertise in herbs of the participants in Greece. Additionally, this paper explores the future training needs in relation to the above mention topics. Descriptive statistics, SWOT, and PEST analysis were performed. The main results of this research revealed the lack of knowledge of wildcrafting practices and trading. The importance of further training was highlighted, especially in marketing and trading skills. These findings can be used to develop training curricula and courses in order to cope with potential threats in the herb sector in Greece.
 Keywords: herbs, Greece, training needs, skills, knowledge

Noise attenuation of a 3D marine seismic reflection dataset – A case study in the Southwest Black Sea region

Noises in marine seismic data are one of the biggest obstacles in seismic imaging. The most significant step in seismic data processing is the removal of seismic noise, which can be classified as instrument and background noise. Noise attenuation usually results in improved seismic interpretation by increasing the signal-to-noise ratio. In this study, we will focus on attenuating these seismic noises with several data processing techniques. A number of denoising examples describing swell, strumming/tugging, cavitation, which are background type noises, and streamer-mounted device noise (Nautilus), which is an instrument type noise, were illustrated by analysing a marine 3D seismic dataset which recorded by Oruc Reis Research Vessel in Black Sea project of MTA (Mineral Research and Exploration). This study was achieved by implementing f-x prediction filter (SPARC, DENOISE3D) and f-k filter (DWATT) in t-x domain, radon filter (RADATT) in Tau-P domain by the use of Geovation 2.0 software.

Business ecosystems and the view from the future: The use of corporate foresight by stakeholders of the Ro-Ro shipping ecosystem in the Baltic Sea Region

Ecosystems are viewed as important sources of innovation. While contracts, rules, policies, and industrial standards have been identified as important for coordinating and aligning inter-firm relationships, tools for the collective, collaborative orchestration of ecosystems have yet to be fully identified and articulated by scholars. The core contribution of this paper, the authors contend, is that corporate foresight tools, as applied at the level of the ecosystem, have the potential to orchestrate ecosystems. To this end, the authors examine the practical use of corporate foresight tools, in this case, roadmapping and scenario planning, as employed by ECOPRODIGI, an Interreg Baltic Sea project designed to advance the EU's strategy for eco-efficient Sustainable Blue Economy in the Roll-on/Roll-off (Ro-Ro) shipping ecosystem. Results demonstrate how ecosystem-level foresight significantly differs from traditional foresight centered around a focal firm. Corporate foresight tools, as applied to an ecosystem: 1) Target a diverse set of ecosystem actors beyond the segment's focal firm, including complementary firms, investors, and non-market actors; 2) Engage ecosystem actors, rather than only the focal firm, in shared strategy development based on a diverse mix of foresight tools; and 3) serve to orient and reify the ecosystem by charting the collective anticipation of innovations, policies, etc., in a shared set of future options. In the end, the authors find that corporate foresight tools operate as constitutive elements of ecosystems, that is, the tools help enact the ecosystem not as an abstract concept but as a shared, lived reality.

Consortium supports development of regenerative tourism project

In Saudi Arabia, ACWA Power had been appointed by The Red Sea Development Co (TRSDC) to design, build, operate and transfer utilities infrastructure for The Red Sea Project.

The cadets' understanding of the ballast water management convention

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) since September 8, 2017, has implemented the Ballast Water Management (BWM) Convention as an effort to protect the maritime environment from ballast water pollution. The ballast water is water used by ships to maintain stability when the ship is unloaded to sail safely. This study aims to determine to what extent the understanding of PIP Semarang cadets in the 7th and 8th semesters of Post Sea Project to the BWM Convention. The research method used is an analytic description with a cross-sectional approach using questionnaires and in-depth interviews. The sample consisted of 49 cadets majoring in the Deck and Engine departments. The study results indicated that most of the respondents do not understand the BWM Convention correctly. On the question of when BWM was enacted, the correct answer was 2.04%. On the question of when Indonesia ratified the BWM, the correct answer was 0%. On the question of how the implementation of BWM for the D-1 standard (ballast exchange) was 2.04% and the D-2 standard (ballast treatment) is 4.08%. However, on the question about the importance of handling ballast water 34.69% answered correctly, which means that they know the dangers of ballast water and it is very important to handle it so as not to impact health and environment. The suggestion is to disseminate the information to cadets through seminars, including marine pollution courses or special training on ballast water.

The Effectiveness of STEM for Sea Project to Improve Cadets’ Performance as Preparation for Onboard Training

The use of technology plays an important role in education as we gradually move to what is known as industry 4.0. It becomes more important especially during COVID-19 pandemic where online learning is highly demanded. This research applied online learning using the application of STEM for Sea Project (SforSP) to improve the performance of cadets of CASBMMA (Cirebon AKMI Suaka Bahari Merchant Marine Academy), the preparation of their onboard training. This finding encourages the researchers to upgrade the application in providing more suitable materials which correspond to the company’s needs during on board training.

The Ira Moana Project: A Genetic Observatory for Aotearoa’s Marine Biodiversity

The genetic diversity of populations plays a crucial role in ensuring species and ecosystem resilience to threats such as climate change and habitat degradation. Despite this recognized importance of genetic diversity, and its relevance to the Convention on Biological Diversity and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, it remains difficult to observe and synthesize genetic data at a national scale. The “Ira Moana—Genes of the Sea—Project” (https://sites.massey.ac.nz/iramoana/) has worked to improve stewardship of genetic data for Aotearoa New Zealand’s (NZ) marine organisms to facilitate marine genetic biodiversity observation, research, and conservation. The Ira Moana Project has established interoperable data infrastructures and tools that help researchers follow international best-practice (including the FAIR Principles for Data Stewardship and CARE Principles for Indigenous Data Governance) and contribute to a national genetic data resource. Where possible, the Project has employed existing infrastructures (such as the Genomic Observatories Metadatabase, GEOME) to allow interoperability with similar research activities, but has also innovated to accommodate the national interests of NZ. The Ira Moana Project has an inclusive model, and through presentations, workshops, and datathons, it has provided training, education, and opportunities for collaboration among NZ researchers. Here, we outline the motivations for the Ira Moana Project, describe the Project activities and outcomes, and plans for future development. As a timely response to national and international pressures on genetic biodiversity research, it is hoped that the Ira Moana Project will facilitate NZ researchers, communities, and conservation practitioners to navigate this crucial period, and provide tangible solutions nationally and globally.

The Black Sea Region in the Contest of Geopolitical Projects of the Great Powers, 1991-2019

The Black Sea region (BSR) is becoming a geopolitical space of clash - a frontline zone for the formation of a new system of international relations. After the Cold War, the region from the peripheral became one of the centers of competition between regional and global powers. It has mostly geopolitical rather than simple geographical character, significantly expanding its borders in at least four variations: the BS as the space of seven coastal states, the BS as the Baltic-Black Sea region, the BS as the Black Sea-Caspian Sea region, and the BS as the nerve center of the Greater Mediterranean. The article analyzes the geopolitical projects of great powers in relation to the Black Sea region in 1991-2019. The aim is to study the evolution and dynamics of these geopolitical projects by comparing the conceptual and doctrinal levels, as well as the level of practical policy of the key actors in relation to the Black Sea region. The scientific novelty lies in the systematic analysis of the geopolitical projects of great powers in the BSR after the Cold War, which becomes one of the critically important regions in the current period of world history. The authors conclude that the United States, the EU and Turkey follow an offensive strategy in the BSR, while Russias strategy is aimed at maintaining the status quo. After 2014, the USA and its allies have embarked on a third attempt to implement the Euro-Atlantic Black Sea project and the Greater Black Sea project, which involve the displacement of the Russian Federation from the Black Sea region. The geopolitical significance of the BSR is determined by its strategic location at the intersection of the interests of key actors. Their competition in the BSR is carried out both at the regional (Russia - Turkey - EU) and global (USA - Russia, Turkey, Iran; EU - Russia, Turkey, USA; China - USA, EU, Russia) levels, determining the content of conceptual approaches to the political structure of the region and specific integration (and infrastructure) projects. The complexity of the current geopolitical situation in the region is determined by a large number of competing powers and changing contours of the international system. The main axis of intra-regional competition in the BSR is focused on achieving a balance of power between Russia and Turkey.

Odor-aided analysis for landfill site selection: study of DOKAP Region, Turkey.

In our world, with the increase of factors such as the rapid and irresponsible consumption of natural resources, man-made environmental disasters, global warming, and pollution of water resources in our world, the need for more efficient storage and disposal of solid waste has arisen. The presentation of the data required to solve spatial problems such as storage, management, and location selection can be carried out extensively and effectively using geographic information systems (GIS). On the other hand, the unsatisfactory results obtained with GIS recently have made it mandatory to use spatial multiple criteria decision-making (S-MCDM) methods that include the decision-makers in the process. In this study, landfill site selection was carried out in eight provinces in the region under the responsibility of the Eastern Black Sea Project Regional Development Administration (DOKAP). GIS and S-MCDM were used together in this site selection process. A total of eight spatial data layers were used in the site selection application. Afterwards, storage areas determined as suitable via GIS analysis underwent additional evaluation, taking into account geological, seismic, and environmental factors as well as transportation costs. In addition to these multi-component evaluations, odor analyses were carried out on the proposed storage areas using the prevailing wind direction.

Panarchy 3: River of the Sea

The article reflects critically on Panarchy 3: River of the Sea, a learning-disabled-led ecological performance project that evolved in connection with the River Clyde from 2018 to 2019. River of the Sea was a collaboration between The Panarchy Projects at the University of Glasgow and the Friday Club at the Citizens’ Theatre in Glasgow. The Friday Club is a learning-disabled theatre group with fifteen members that meets once a week to socialize and develop performance skills, and The Panarchy Projects are an ongoing series of neurodivergent-led, ecological, and theatre-based research projects. The article introduces the exploratory praxis of the River of the Sea project, which combines theatre practice as research method with participatory action research methods within an expanded ecological field. It then analyses the findings, insights, and accounts of experience which were generated through this praxis and shared in two very different performance events. The article ends by discussing these findings, suggesting that learning-disabled-led ecological performance practices, such as those explored in the River of the Sea project, can support aesthetic experimentation, and nurture solidarity. The article hopes to contribute to the development of what Alison Kafer has called a “cripped environmentalism” (131), and to the building of a bridge between learning disability and environmental discourses.

A Reference Spectrum Model for Estimating Source Levels of Marine Shipping Based on Automated Identification System Data

Underwater sound mapping is increasingly being used as a tool for monitoring and managing noise pollution from shipping in the marine environment. Sound maps typically rely on tracking data from the Automated Information System (AIS), but information available from AIS is limited and not easily related to vessel noise emissions. Thus, robust sound mapping tools not only require accurate models for estimating source levels for large numbers of marine vessels, but also an objective assessment of their uncertainties. As part of the Joint Monitoring Programme for Ambient Noise in the North Sea (JOMOPANS) project, a widely used reference spectrum model (RANDI 3.1) was validated against statistics of monopole ship source level measurements from the Vancouver Fraser Port Authority-led Enhancing Cetacean Habitat and Observation (ECHO) Program. These validation comparisons resulted in a new reference spectrum model (the JOMOPANS-ECHO source level model) that retains the power-law dependence on speed and length but incorporates class-specific reference speeds and new spectrum coefficients. The new reference spectrum model calculates the ship source level spectrum, in decidecade bands, as a function of frequency, speed, length, and AIS ship type. The statistical uncertainty (standard deviation of the deviation between model and measurement) in the predicted source level spectra of the new model is estimated to be 6 dB.

Coastal circulation and water transport properties of the Red Sea Project lagoon

The Red Sea Project (RSP) is based on a coastal lagoon with over 90 pristine islands. The project intends to transform the Red Sea coast into a world-class tourist destination. To better understand the regional dynamics and water exchange scenarios in the lagoon, a high-resolution numerical model is implemented. The general and tidal circulation dynamics are then investigated with a particular focus on the response of the lagoon to strong wind jets. Significant variations in winter and summer circulation patterns are identified. The tidal amplitude inside the lagoon is greater than that outside, with strong tidal currents passing over its surrounding coral reef banks. The lagoon rapidly responds to the strong easterly wind jets that occur mainly in winter; it develops a reverse flow at greater depths, and the coastal water elevation is instantly affected. Lagrangian particle simulations are conducted to study the residence time of water in the lagoon. The results suggest that water renewal is slow in winter. Analysis of the Lagrangian coherent structures (LCS) reveals that water renewal is largely linked to the circulation patterns in the lagoon. In winter, the water becomes restricted in the central lagoon with only moderate exchange, whereas in summer, more circulation is observed with a higher degree of interaction between the central lagoon and external water. The results of LCS also highlight the tidal contribution to stirring and mixing while identifying the hotspots of the phenomenon. Our analysis demonstrates an effective approach for studying regional water mixing and connectivity, which could support coastal management in data-limited regions.

Dynamics of turbidity in gypsum-precipitating brines: The case of the Red Sea – Dead Sea project

Authigenic processes in aqueous environments, such as mineral precipitation, can create turbidity which may have undesired effects on the natural environment and in industrial processes. Turbidity is often used to monitor such environments, as a mean to determine water quality and to follow the industrial processes. However, turbidity develops and grows or dissipates with time as the processes underlying its development advance. This dynamic nature of turbidity has yet to be studied.The proposed pilot Red Sea – Dead Sea project (RSDSP) is to desalinate seawater from the Gulf of Aqaba/Eilat and convey the reject brine, with or without additional seawater, to the Dead Sea to slow down the rate of its water level decline. The pilot is considered environmentally safe and will be used as a mean to determine if increased inflow volumes to stabilize the Dead Sea level will not negatively affect the lake. The mixing of the two very different solutions will lead to gypsum precipitation in the Dead Sea. In a large-scale project, if this gypsum remains in suspension, it may result in increased turbidity and whitening of the Dead Sea's surface water, thereby impacting the lake's appearance, its energy balance, and its touristic and mineral industries.We have studied the dynamic nature of turbidity as gypsum crystals form, grow and sink out of the water column in enriched mixtures of Dead Sea brine with seawater from the Red Sea. Our laboratory experiments suggest that precipitation from simple mixtures is likely to proceed without creating a significant spontaneous increase in turbidity. Turbidity did however develop in sulfate-enriched mixtures that had higher initial oversaturation. In these enriched solutions increased turbidity was observed, which developed faster and to higher values with increasing initial oversaturation. A linear relationship was found between the mass of gypsum precipitated and turbidity. However, this relationship was not universal; a unit mass of precipitated gypsum resulted in higher turbidity when the gypsum precipitated from mixtures having higher %wt of Dead Sea.This study shows that under laboratory conditions, mixtures of Dead Sea - seawater or Dead Sea – reject brine, do not develop turbidity due to gypsum precipitation. However, precipitation process in large scale natural systems can differ from those in the lab. Therefore, our findings cannot unequivocally conclude whether a whitening of the Dead Sea would develop following the implementation of the full scale RSDSP. Nevertheless, it does set forth the factors that need to be monitored during the pilot stage. Moreover, the study also demonstrates that: 1) authigenic processes do not lead to a one-to-one relationship between particulate matter and turbidity; and 2) turbidity readings must first be calibrated before used as a monitoring tool to identify and quantify gypsum formation (e.g., in desalination plants) or for the determination of induction times (e.g., in experiments).