Update on the geographical distribution records of some Scolopendromorph centipedes (Chilopoda) in India

A study on the large centipede fauna (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha) was conducted in Lo Go - Xa Mat National Park (Tay Ninh Province, southern Vietnam) through two field surveys in March and July 2024. The primary aim of the study was to provide a species checklist for the national park and to update taxonomic and distributional data of scolopendromorph centipedes in a tropical region that remains poorly explored. Specimens were collected using standard soil fauna sampling techniques, including quadrat digging, soil sieving, pitfall trapping, and random sampling along forest transects. All specimens were preserved in ethanol and examined morphologically under stereomicroscopes for taxonomic identification. A total of eleven species and subspecies belonging to five genera and three families within the order Scolopendromorpha were identified, including: Alluropus calcaratus, Cryptops (Cryptops) tahitianus, Cryptops (Paracryptops) indicus, Otostigmus aculeatus, Otostigmus multidens, Otostigmus politus, Otostigmus scaber, Scolopendra dehaani, Scolopendra gracillima sternostriata, Scolopendra morsitans, and Scolopendra subspinipes. Among these, nine species and subspecies represent new records for the area. Although Scolopendra morsitans had been previously reported from the park, it was not encountered in the present study. This study provides an updated checklist of scolopendromorph species in Lò Gò - Xa Mát National Park, together with details of the specimen collection sites and species distributions in Vietnam and globally. The results highlight the high species richness and ecological significance of the park for invertebrate conservation. Moreover, the findings contribute to the national taxonomic database and serve as a scientific basis for biodiversity monitoring, conservation planning, and ecological management in Vietnam.

The paper provides new data and a synthesis on scolopendromorph centipedes of the island of Martinique. Some studied taxa are provided with new illustrated descriptions or diagnoses. Cryptops (Trigonocryptops) amicitia n. sp. is described and its systematic position discussed. Some data on the taxonomy of the subgenus Trigonocryptops Verhoeff, 1906 and a renewed list of its species are given. A complete checklist of the scolopendromorph centipedes of Martinique is presented; for some of the studied species, updated distributions and brief ecological data are provided. New data on some characters used in scolopendromorph taxonomy are provided.

Gene duplication followed by nucleotide differentiation is one of the simplest mechanisms to develop new functions for genes. However, the evolutionary processes underlying the divergence of multigene families remain controversial. We used multigene families found within the diversity of toxic proteins in centipede venom to test two hypotheses related to venom evolution: the two-speed mode of venom evolution and the rapid accumulation of variation in exposed residues (RAVER) model. The two-speed mode of venom evolution proposes that different types of selection impact ancient and younger venomous lineages with negative selection being the predominant form in ancient lineages and positive selection being the dominant form in younger lineages. The RAVER hypothesis proposes that, instead of different types of selection acting on different ages of venomous lineages, the different types of selection will selectively contribute to amino acid variation based on whether the residue is exposed to the solvent where it can potentially interact directly with toxin targets. This hypothesis parallels the longstanding understanding of protein evolution that suggests that residues found within the structural or active regions of the protein will be under negative or purifying selection, and residues that do not form part of these areas will be more prone to positive selection. To test these two hypotheses, we compared the venom of 26 centipedes from the order Scolopendromorpha from six currently recognized species from across North America using both transcriptomics and proteomics. We first estimated their phylogenetic relationships and uncovered paraphyly among the genus Scolopendra and evidence for cryptic diversity among currently recognized species. Using our phylogeny, we then characterized the diverse venom components from across the identified clades using a combination of transcriptomics and proteomics. We conducted selection-based analyses in the context of predicted three-dimensional properties of the venom proteins and found support for both hypotheses. Consistent with the two-speed hypothesis, we found a prevalence of negative selection across all proteins. Consistent with the RAVER hypothesis, we found evidence of positive selection on solvent-exposed residues, with structural and less-exposed residues showing stronger signal for negative selection. Through the use of phylogenetics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and selection-based analyses, we were able to describe the evolution of venom from an ancient venomous lineage and support principles of protein evolution that directly relate to multigene family evolution.

Mimopidae is the sister group to all other scolopendromorph centipedes (Chilopoda, Scolopendromorpha): a phylotranscriptomic approach

Abstract Bird's nest ferns (Asplenium spp.) support large numbers of invertebrates, including centipedes. As top invertebrate predators, centipedes drive ecosystem function, for example, by regulating decomposer populations, but we know little of their ecology in forest canopies. We provide the first detailed observations of the diversity and structure of the centipede communities of bird's nest ferns, revealing the importance of these epiphytes as nurseries for centipedes. We collected 305 centipedes equating to ˜11,300 mg of centipede biomass from 44 bird's nest ferns (22 of which were from the high canopy and 22 from the low canopy) in primary tropical rainforest in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. Most abundant were the Scolopendromorpha (n = 227 individuals), followed by the Geophilomorpha (n = 59), Lithobiomorpha (n = 14), and Scutigeromorpha (n = 5). Although we observed very little overlap in species between the forest strata, scolopendromorph centipedes dominated throughout the canopy. Null model analysis revealed no significant competitive interactions; on the contrary, we observed centipedes sharing nest sites within the ferns on three of the ten occasions that we found nests. All nests belonged to centipedes of the family Scolopendridae, which are typically aggressive, and usually show negative spatial association. This study reveals a diverse community of canopy centipedes, providing further evidence of the importance of bird's nest ferns to a wide range of animals, many of which use the ferns at critical life stages. Future conservation strategies should regard these ubiquitous epiphytes as umbrella species and protect them accordingly in landscape management decisions.Abstract in Malay is available with online material.

The paper provides new data on seven scolopendromorph centipede species collected in Martinique Island. Two new species are described: Otostigmus (Parotostigmus) salticus n. sp. and Cryptops (Trigonocryptops) martinicensis n. sp.; their systematic position is discussed. Notes on the system of subgenus Trigonocryptops Verhoeff, 1906 are given and Cryptops sarasini var. furcata Ribaut, 1923 is confirmed as subspecies. Cormocephalus guildingii Newport, 1845, Newportia longitarsis guadeloupensis Demange, 1981 and N. pusilla Pocock, 1893 are reported from Martinique for the first time. A list of the Scolopendromorpha of this island is given.

Scolopendromorph centipedes (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha) are a diverse group of invertebrate communities, which play significant, but often poorly acknowledged or understood roles in the delivery of soil ecosystem services. In the present paper we analyze the impact of seasonal and edaphic factors on the species diversity of scolopendromorph centipedes based on the field studies conducted in three selected sites. The study sites included a protected forest ecosystem, an undisturbed isolated hillock and a residential plot at Kozhikode District, Kerala, India. The study was performed from April 2011 to November 2012. Overall 486 individuals belonging to 18 species under the families Cryptopidae and Scolopendridae were collected. The range of Shannon-Wiener diversity was 0.89–2.58 and Simpson diversity was 1.91–13.69. Species diversity is also influenced by variations in seasons and various physico–chemical properties of soil in the study area. General observations on parental care, moulting, hibernation and ectoparasitism were also included.

The present paper provides the first study of the morphology, description and distribution preferences of the Scolopendromorpha centipede fauna of Kurdistan/Iraq. Three species belong to the genus Scolopendra have been reported from the country. After a study of significant amount of new material collected in the period 2013-2014, three species namely Scolopendra subspinipes Leach (1815), Scolopendra polymorpha Wood (1861) and Scolopendra cingulata Latreille (1829) were found. New illustrations and, where appropriate, brief descriptions of the species are given, along with an identification key for the Iraqi Scolopendromorphs.

We examined the diet of New Mexico Ridge-nosed Rattlesnakes (Crotalus willardi obscurus) from the Sierra San Luis and the Sierra Pan Duro in the northern Sierra Madre Occidental, México. All snakes included in this study were encountered during August, September, and October in 2003 and 2004. Including recaptures of previously captured individuals, 107 of 199 snakes contained at least one prey item. We examined 103 prey items from 92 of these snakes; some snakes contained multiple prey items. Approximately two-thirds of prey items were ectotherms (54.4% lizards and 13.6% scolopendromorph centipedes); birds (21.4%) and mammals (10.7%) were also taken. The diet of juvenile snakes (n = 32) consisted primarily of lizards (62.5%) and centipedes (25.8%), although large juveniles also consumed mammals (6.3%) and passerine birds (6.3%). Adult snakes (n = 71) fed primarily on lizards (50.7%) and passerine birds (28.2%) but also consumed mammals (12.7%) and centipedes (8.4%). Crotalus willardi in the Sierra San Luis and Sierra Pan Duro consumed more birds than has been reported from C. willardi in nearby populations and continued to consume centipedes as adults.Examinamos la dieta de la New Mexico Ridge-nosed Rattlesnake (Crotalus willardi obscurus) en la Sierra San Luis y la Sierra Pan Duro en el norte de la Sierra Madre Occidental, México, de serpientes colectadas en los meses de agosto, septiembre y octubre en 2003 y 2004. Capturamos 199 serpientes contando capturas y recapturas. Y de ellas 107 contenían restos de por lo menos una presa. Examinamos 103 restos de presas provenientes de 92 serpientes; algunas serpientes presentaban restos de múltiples presas. Aproximadamente dos tercios de las presas fueron ectotermos (54.4% lagartijas y 13.6% ciempiés); también fueron consumidas aves (21.4%) y mamíferos (10.7%). La dieta de las serpientes juveniles (n = 32) consistió principalmente de lagartijas (62.5%) y ciempiés (25.8%), aunque los juveniles grandes también consumieron mamíferos (6.3%) y aves paseriformes (6.3%). Las serpientes adultas (n = 71) se alimentan principalmente de lagartijas (50.7%) y aves paseriformes (28.2%), aunque también consumieron mamíferos (12.7%) y ciempiés (8.4%). Las serpientes en la Sierra San Luis y la Sierra Pan Duro consumieron más aves de lo que ha sido reportado para las poblaciones cercanas y los adultos continúan alimentándose de ciempiés.

Venom regeneration in the centipede Scolopendra polymorpha: evidence for asynchronous venom component synthesis

Many arthropods add body segments post-embryonically, including most of the myriapods. However, geophilomorph and scolopendromorph centipedes are epimorphic, i.e. they form all their segments during embryonic time, although this has never been demonstrated directly. Understanding the similarity between embryonic and post-embryonic segmentation is pivotal to understand the possible evolution from anamorphosis to epimorphosis. We have previously demonstrated that in the geophilomorph centipede Strigamia maritima most segments are produced by an oscillatory mechanism operating through waves of expression at double segment periodicity, but that the last-forming (posteriormost) segments are patterned with a different system which might be more similar to post-embryonic segmentation. With a careful analysis of a large number of specimens, I show that the first (“embryoid”) phase of post-embryonic development is clearly distinct from the following ones. It is characterized by more moults than previously reported, allowing me to define and name new stages. I describe these embryoid stages and the first free-leaving stage in detail, providing data on their duration and useful identification characters. At hatching, the prospective last leg-bearing segment is limbless and the genital segments are added in the following stages, indicating a residual anamorphosis in Strigamia segmentation. I demonstrate directly for the first time that at least the leg-bearing segments are in general produced during embryonic life, although in some individuals the external delineation of the last leg-bearing segment may be delayed to post-embryonic time, a possible further residual of anamorphic development. Additionally, I show that the development of the poison claws during this post-embryonic phase may have some element of recapitulation. The data presented in this paper show that the embryoid phase of post-embryonic development of geophilomorph centipedes may represent an extension of embryonic development, possibly in correlation with the evolution of epimorphic development from an anamorphic ancestor, accomplished without completely losing post-embryonic segmentation activity. This continuity in the segmentation process across the embryonic/postembryonic divide may concur to the evolvability of this developmental process.

Variation in venom yield and protein concentration of the centipedes Scolopendra polymorpha and Scolopendra subspinipes

The spiracles of scolopendromorph centipedes have long been a source of systematic characters based on their segmental distribution and gross morphology, but microscopic investigations to date have documented only a small number of species. A scanning electron microscopic survey of 34 species that samples the major groups of Scolopendromorpha reveals variability in such features as the structure of the peritremal margin, specific kinds of sensilla and glandular pores on the peritrema, projections on the valves that subdivide the atrium (in Scolopendrinae), and the form of the trichomes around the tracheal openings. Adding new characters from the spiracles to recent morphological datasets for phylogenetic inference reinforces the monophyly of major groups of Scolopendridae and is particularly informative for relationships within Scolopendrini. A bowl-like atrium with the tracheae opening between humps in its floor is more widespread in Scolopendromorpha than previously reported. Shared presence of spiracle muscles in Cryptopidae and Scolopendrinae may reflect convergent evolution of a subatrial cavity in these groups rather than being an apomorphic character for Scolopendromorpha as a whole.

Statements in the literature suggest that the scolopendromorph centipedes Cryptops , Theatops and Plutonium use their ultimate legs to capture prey. It has been suggested that when the ultimate legs of Cryptops are exed the tibial and tarsal saw teeth are opposed, however, this is not so. There are relatively few observations of prey capture by Cryptops and none involve the ultimate legs. It is suggested that the ultimate legs are defensive; trapping some part of a potential predator and then being autotomised as the centipede makes good its escape. Although they may be involved in holding predators, this may not be the primary use of the saw teeth. In some New Zealand species the tibial saw teeth in males are arranged in several rows whereas in females there is a single row of teeth. The saw teeth may, therefore function in sexual recognition. Saw teeth may also function in species recognition before pairing takes place. That the ultimate legs of Theatops are involved in prey capture seems doubtful. Observations of the movements of the ultimate legs in living specimens and, particularly, on feeding are required.

The present paper provides a review of the composition, distribution and habitat preferences of the scolopendromorph centipedes of Tunisia. Five (sub-)genera and 8 (sub-)species have hitherto been reported from the country, of which two are of uncertain status. After a study of significant amount of new material collected in the period 2003-2008, 6 species, namely Scolopendra canidens Newport, 1844, S. morsitans Linnaeus, 1758, Cormocephalus gervaisianus (C.L. Koch, 1841), Otostigmus spinicaudus (Newport, 1844), Cryptops punicus Silvestri, 1896 and C. trisulcatus Brölemann, 1902, were found in the country. New illustrations and, where appropriate, brief descriptions of the species are given, along with an identification key for the Tunisian scolopendromorphs. Cryptops anomalans Newport 1844, Scolopendra oraniensis Lucas, 1846 and S. cingulata Latreille, 1829 are excluded from the country’s list since all previous records are most likely based on misidentifications. Cryptops trisulcatus and C. punicus are recorded for the first time from Tunisia and Libya, respectively. The taxonomic position of C. punicus is discussed and the species is transferred from the subgenus Trigonocryptops to Cryptops. Scolopendra morsitans scopoliana is synonymised under S. morsitans. S. canidens, O. spinicaudus and C. punicus are well adapted to arid and semidesert biotopes and have much wider ranges compared to the other three species which are restricted to the northern, more humid parts of the country. S. canidens is the only myriapod in Tunisia found in a pure sandy desert.

The need for standardising the terminology of the external taxonomic characters of scolopendromorph centipedes is addressed. Single terms are proposed for most characters, bearing in mind those currently in use for the Lithobiomorpha and Geophilomorpha; alternatives are suggested for others. A table compares this nomenclature with those employed in recent treatments of these three orders and is accompanied by explanatory notes. Setal terminology and that for features restricted to individual families and genera are discussed separately.

We describe the diet of Crotalus lepidus klauberi (Banded Rock Rattlesnake) using samples collected in the field and from museum specimens, as well as several records from unpublished reports. Most records (approximately 91%) were from the northern Sierra Madrean Archipelago. Diet consisted of 55.4% lizards, 28.3% scolopendromorph centipedes, 13.8% mammals, 1.9% birds, and 0.6% snakes. Sceloporus spp. comprised 92.4% of lizards. Extrapolation suggests that Sceloporus jarrovii represents 82.3% of lizard records. Diet was independent of geographic distribution (mountain range), sex, source of sample (stomach vs. intestine/feces), and age class. However, predator snout–vent length differed significantly among prey types; snakes that ate birds were longest, followed in turn by those that ate mammals, lizards, and centipedes. Collection date also differed significantly among prey classes; the mean date for centipede records was later than the mean date for squamate, bird, or mammal records. We found no difference in the elevation of collection sites among prey classes.

Abstract We describe the diet of Crotalus lepidus klauberi (Banded Rock Rattlesnake) using samples collected in the field and from museum specimens, as well as several records from unpublished reports. Most records (approximately 91%) were from the northern Sierra Madrean Archipelago. Diet consisted of 55.4% lizards, 28.3% scolopendromorph centipedes, 13.8% mammals, 1.9% birds, and 0.6% snakes. Sceloporus spp. comprised 92.4% of lizards. Extrapolation suggests that Sceloporus jarrovii represents 82.3% of lizard records. Diet was independent of geographic distribution (mountain range), sex, source of sample (stomach vs. intestine/feces), and age class. However, predator snout–vent length differed significantly among prey types; snakes that ate birds were longest, followed in turn by those that ate mammals, lizards, and centipedes. Collection date also differed significantly among prey classes; the mean date for centipede records was later than the mean date for squamate, bird, or mammal records. We found n...

The results of a survey of the scolopendromorph centipedes of Mauritius and Rodrigues and their offshore islets for surviving endemic species are reported. This fauna was poorly known, only five species having been reported from the islands. Collections were made from Mauritius and Gunner's Quoin, Round Island, with its remnant of palm savanna, Serpent Island and Île aux Aigrettes which contains the last remnant of coastal forest. Collections were also made on Rodrigues and two small coral sand islets — Île aux Sables and Île Cocos. Eight species were recorded from Mauritius. Rhysida longipes longipes (Newport, 1845), a widespread tropical species and Cryptops decoratus Lawrence, 1960, hitherto known from Madagascar, are new records and two new endemic species are described: Rhysida jonesi, from Round Island and Cryptops daszaki, found only on Île aux Aigrettes. This brings the number of endemics to four. Further material of the upland forest endemic Cryptops mauritianus Verhoeff, 1939 was obtained and the species redescribed. The characteristics of Otostigmus rugulosus Porat, 1876, a widespread species first described from Mauritius, are discussed. Four species were found on Rodrigues of which Otostigmus rugulosus and Cryptops niloticus Lewis, 1967 are new records. Both are widespread species. No endemics were found, probably reflecting the denuded state of the vegetation. A key is provided for the identification of the 10 species from the islands. The differences between the Cryptops species are discussed as is the distribution of scolopendromorphs on the islands. Coverage of the islands is still poor and further collection is desirable.