School Racial Composition Research Articles

“Value in diversity”: School racial and ethnic composition, teacher diversity, and school punishment

American schools have become increasingly punitive and characterized by racial and ethnic disparities in punishment outcomes. Scholarship on the causes and consequences of this shift has highlighted the potential salience of school context. The current study extends this work by exploring the potential effect of an underexplored factor, teacher diversity, on suspension disparities. To date, explorations of the role of teacher diversity have been limited to its impact on academic outcomes, teacher perceptions, and behavioral outcomes. The current study fills a void in the existing literature by examining (1) whether greater teacher diversity is associated with reductions in racial and ethnic suspension disparities and (2) whether greater teacher diversity interacts with the size of the racial and ethnic student population to influence suspension disparities. This study contributes to the existing literature by extending the “value in diversity” perspective to the school setting. Additionally, the findings suggest that racial and ethnic diversity in positions of authority in the school setting fosters a more equitable approach to the administration of student punishment.

School Segregation and Racial Gaps in Special Education Identification

We use linked birth and education records from Florida to investigate how the identification of childhood disabilities varies by race and school racial composition. Using a series of decompositions, we find that black and Hispanic students are identified with disabilities at lower rates than are observationally similar white students. Black and Hispanic students are overidentified in schools with relatively small shares of minorities and substantially underidentified in schools with large minority shares. Our results are consistent with a heightened awareness among school officials of disabilities in students who are racially and ethnically distinct from the majority race in the school.

A Metaregression Analysis of the Effects of School Racial and Ethnic Composition on K–12 Reading, Language Arts, and English Outcomes

Racial and ethnic differences in educational outcomes significantly narrowed during the 1970s and 1980s when K–12 public schools were desegregated. However, when schools resegregated starting roughly in the late 1980s, racial gaps in outcomes widened again. Because of literacy’s pivotal role in learning, the authors investigate if segregation contributes to racial gaps in K–12 reading performance. Drawing upon structural vulnerability and cumulative advantage/disadvantage theories to frame this study, the authors conduct multilevel metaregression analyses of 131 effect sizes from 30 primary studies to investigate if school composition effects contribute to racial gaps in K–12 reading outcomes and if any effects vary in magnitude or direction for students from different racial/ethnic backgrounds or grade levels. The metaregression analyses control for the primary studies’ regression model characteristics and research designs. The results indicate a small, negative, statistically significant relationship between the percentage of a school’s disadvantaged minority enrollment and the mean reading achievement of the students who attend it. The negative association is stronger when segregation is measured by percentage Black and is stronger for high school students. These two findings suggest that the disadvantages of segregated education cumulate as more structurally vulnerable students transition from elementary to secondary school. Additional results suggest that a school’s racial composition effect is not the same as its socioeconomic status composition effect. The two organizational characteristics have distinct, albeit interrelated, influences on reading scores. Together the findings suggest that racially and ethnically segregated schooling both reflects and helps reproduce racial/ethnic inequality in literacy outcomes.

Socially-Structured Mobility Networks and School Segregation Dynamics: The Role of Emergent Consideration Sets

This study proposes and applies a novel method for empirically evaluating the role of social structure in the school sorting process. We use administrative records from Baltimore City and suburban Baltimore County public elementary schools (2011 to 2015) to generate a network of schools based on student transfers. We then apply repeated calculations of the Louvian method of community detection to estimate emergent sets of schools that similar parents are likely to consider—which we term emergent consideration sets—and use gravity models to explore the role of social structure, demographics, and geography in observed enrollment patterns. We find that our network-derived emergent consideration sets are better defined by structural boundaries than by student composition or proficiency alone. Within consideration sets, students tend to avoid schools with relatively higher levels of free- and reduced-price meal eligibility and flock toward schools with higher proficiency levels. School racial composition, however, plays a much smaller role in predicting movement between schools, in part because structural constraints generate racially homogeneous consideration sets. Together, these findings highlight how regional social and geographic organization shapes school segregation processes and the policies used to combat them.

Are Feminine Body Weight Norms Different for Black Students or in Black Schools? Girls' Weight-Related Peer Acceptance across Racialized School Contexts.

Adolescent girls with overweight or obesity are less socially integrated than their thinner peers. We examine racial-ethnic differences in girls' weight-related friendship patterns, especially noting Black-white distinctions given their different norms about the ideal feminine form. We also test whether schools with more Black students see diminished weight-related differences in peer integration for all girls and/or for Black girls. Using 1994-1995 data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, we predict the number of friendship nominations girls receive conditional on their weight status, race-ethnicity, and school's racial composition. Both white and Black girls with overweight or obesity are less integrated than their thinner peers regardless of the school's Black enrollment rate. Hispanic girls with overweight are more integrated than white girls with overweight, particularly in schools with low Black enrollments. The relative consistency of girls' weight-related friendship patterns demonstrates the ubiquity of dominant feminine thinness norms.

Geography of music access, race, and SES in NYC public schools: public vs. charter

This study explores segregation and privatization in NYC public schools through the lens of early childhood music education. On a macro level (district/citywide), this article compares access to music in charter schools and traditional public schools serving kindergarten through third grade (K-3) and examines how different socio-demographic factors related to the presence of music instruction in both sets of schools. Quantitative and geographic analyses indicate that charter schools and traditional public schools offered early childhood music programs at comparable rates and that the prevalence of music correlated with school size. However, when accounting for music instruction by non-certified school-based staff, traditional public schools were significantly more likely to provide K-3 music than their charter school counterparts. Notably, the socioeconomic status (vis-à-vis PTA contributions) and racial composition of schools correlated with the presence of music in traditional public schools, but no such correlations could be established for charter schools, which, in NYC, are predominantly located in communities of color with higher rates of poverty. In NYC, despite state mandates to provide instruction in all arts domains, lack of access to early childhood music instruction seems predicated on the unintended consequences of PTA funding and the expanding charter school movement.

Impostor Phenomenon and Psychological Well-Being: The Moderating Roles of John Henryism and School Racial Composition Among Black College Students.

The impostor phenomenon (IP), or erroneous cognitions of intellectual incompetence, is a risk factor for poor psychological adjustment among Black emerging adults. Grounded in Lazarus and Folkman's Stress and Coping Framework, the current study investigated John Henryism's active coping and institutional racial composition as moderators of the association between IP and indicators of psychological well-being among 266 Black students (77% women; M age = 19.87) attending predominately White institutions (PWIs) and historically Black colleges/universities (HBCUs). Hierarchical moderation regression analyses revealed that IP was associated with decreases in well-being indicators among students attending PWIs and HBCUs. Moreover, students who attended PWIs and reported higher levels of John Henryism (+1 SD) were most vulnerable to increases in social anxiety, particularly at higher levels of IP. Results suggest that the interaction between IP, John Henrysim, and institutional racial composition may negatively influence psychological well-being. We discuss how these findings can be used to inform clinical and educational practices to best support Black college students.

Does Diversity Matter? School Racial Composition and Academic Achievement of Students in a Diverse Sample

Research findings on school diversity and its impact on children’s educational outcomes is mixed. This study examined school racial diversity and educational outcomes for ethnically diverse students. Data came from third graders, N = 33,857 (51.8% male; 57.2% Latinx), in 278 schools. Using multilevel models, we examined the association between school racial composition and academic outcomes. Results showed that increased school diversity was negatively related to academic achievement, but this association was moderated by race. For White students, more equal representation was positively related to academic achievement, but this association was negative for Black and Latinx students.

Associations Between Teacher–Student Racial/Ethnic Congruence and Public School Teachers’ Risk for Stress

Using national data from the National Center for Education Statistics 2011–2012 Schools and Staffing Survey and Common Core of Data, we examined the relationship between K–12 practitioners’ risk for stress and the teacher-to-student racial/ethnic congruence. Analyses indicated significant variation in risk for stress by school racial composition and suggested that the likelihood of being categorized as most at-risk for stress is associated with the teacher-to-student racial/ethnic congruence. Findings point to substantial differences in how teachers appraise their environments depending on school context, which has implications for how education stakeholders recruit and prepare classroom practitioners.

The Long-Run Effects of School Racial Diversity on Political Identity

How do early-life experiences shape political identity? In this paper, we study how a shock to the social lives of youth affected their party affiliation in adulthood. Specifically, we examine the end of race-based busing in Charlotte-Mecklenburg schools (CMS), an event that led to large changes in school racial composition. Using linked administrative data, we compare party affiliation for students who had lived on opposite sides of newly drawn school boundaries. We find that a 10-percentage point increase in the share of minorities in a student's assigned school decreased their likelihood of registering as a Republican by 8.8 percent. Consistent with the contact hypothesis, this impact is entirely driven by white students (a 12 percent decrease). This effect size is roughly 16 percent of the correlation between parents and their children's party affiliations. Finally, consistent with this change reflecting underlying partisan identity, we find no significant effect on voter registration likelihood. Together these results suggest that schools in childhood play an important role in shaping partisanship. Institutional subscribers to the NBER working paper series, and residents of developing countries may download this paper without additional charge at www.nber.org.

Impacts of School Racial Composition on the Mathematics and Reading Achievement Gap in Post Unitary Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools

This is a longitudinal study of the change in the academic achievement gap between African American and European American students from elementary to high schools with large administrative data from a school district in the United States. Analysis of variance between eight tracks of students defined by the school environment of isolated schools or diverse schools indicated that middle school is a critical period for closing the achievement gap and that students who stayed in diverse schools from elementary to high schools benefited the most in both reading and mathematics standardized test scores. Multilevel linear growth models show that staying in isolated elementary and middle schools has a negative impact on the students’ reading achievement and their annual growth rate in mathematics for all students regardless of race.

Social contexts and race-related stress: School racial composition and diurnal cortisol

Social contexts and race-related stress: School racial composition and diurnal cortisol

Person–Environment Fit, Substance Use Attitudes, and Early Adolescent Substance Use

Background: Adolescent substance use is a national health concern. While the literature is clear on the prevalence of substance use during the adolescent developmental period, a dearth of literature is available on the developmental contexts, particularly the influence of school factors, in which substance use occurs. Objectives: This study examined the intermediary role of substance use attitudes on the relationship between school racial composition and alcohol and marijuana use in a sample of sixth to eighth graders. Methods: The sample consisted of 4228 middle school students (89% White; 53% female) in the Midwest. A moderated mediation analysis was conducted on the relationship between school racial composition, substance use attitudes, and substance use, with race as the moderator. Results: Results indicated a significant relationship between the percentage of White or Black students in a school and alcohol or marijuana use and that this relationship was mediated by substance use attitudes. These relationships did not differ significantly by student race. Conclusions/Importance: Preliminary findings indicate the importance of considering school racial composition as a systems level risk or promotive factor for attitudes toward substance use as well as substance use outcomes.

Gender-Typed Personality Qualities and African American Youth’s School Functioning

Numerous studies document sex differences in African American girls' and boys' academic achievement and motivation, but little is known about how the enactment of gender, such as in the forms of gendered behaviors, attitudes, or personal-social qualities, is related to school functioning. To advance understanding of African American adolescents' academic experiences, this study examined the longitudinal linkages between stereotypically feminine (i.e., expressive) and stereotypically masculine (i.e., instrumental) personality characteristics and school adjustment. The moderating effects of youth's ethnic identity and school racial composition also were tested. Participants were 352 African American youth (50.1% girls; mean age at Time 1 = 12.04 years; SD= 2.03) who participated in annual home interviews. Net of biological sex, expressive traits (kind, sensitive) were positively related to school self-esteem and school bonding for both girls and boys, but youth with higher levels of instrumentality (independent, competitive) exhibited sharper declines in academic achievement across adolescence. School racial composition moderated the effects of instrumentality at the between-person level, such that instrumentality was positively related to school self-esteem only for youth who attended schools with fewer African American students. These results highlight the importance of incorporating gendered personality traits, rather than biological sex alone, into theoretical accounts of African American youth's school functioning.

School racial composition and lifetime non-medical use of prescription painkillers: Evidence from the national longitudinal study of adolescent to adult health

ObjectiveTo investigate the possible effects of middle and high school racial composition on later reporting of lifetime non-medical use of prescription painkillers (NMUPP) in young adulthood, and to explore whether there is evidence of variability by individual race/ethnicity in such effects. MethodsUsing data from Wave 1 (1994/5) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health), we categorized the sample's 52 middle schools and 80 high schools as majority (>50%) non-Hispanic white, majority non-Hispanic black, or neither. We used two-level hierarchical modeling to explore associations between individual- and school-level race at Wave 1 and lifetime prescription painkiller misuse reported at Wave 4. We included a cross-level interaction between individual race and school racial composition to assess variability in school-level associations by race. ResultsOverall crude prevalence of lifetime NMUPP in majority white schools (17.9%) was over three times that of prevalence in majority black schools (4.8%), and also higher than prevalence in schools neither predominantly black nor predominantly white (12.4%). Lifetime misuse among blacks in majority white schools was more prevalent (5.2%) than among blacks in black schools (2.8%), as was misuse among whites in white schools (19.3%) compared to their white peers in black schools (15.7%). Two-level random intercept Poisson regression results suggest that attendance in a majority black secondary school lowered a participant's risk of lifetime NMUPP (compared to attending a majority white school: RR=0.66, p = 0.03). Compared to blacks in black schools, blacks in white schools had twice the risk of prescription painkiller misuse (p = 0.004) over a decade later, and whites in white schools had 5.5 times the risk (p = 0.01). The risk ratio comparing whites in black schools to whites in white schools was not significant (RR: 1.30; p = 0.37). ConclusionsWe found evidence of an effect of school racial composition on the risk of misusing prescription painkillers over a decade later, over and above individual race, with higher risk of misuse reported among participants who had attended white schools. Black participants who had attended predominantly white schools were, on average, twice as likely to report lifetime misuse of prescription painkillers compared to blacks who had attended black schools.

Does School Racial Composition Explain Why High Income Black Youth Perceive More Discrimination? A Gender Analysis.

Recent research has documented poor mental health among high socioeconomic status (SES) Blacks, particularly African American males. The literature has also shown a positive link between SES and perceived discrimination, suggesting that perceived discrimination may explain why high SES Black males report poor mental health. To better understand the role of contextual factors in explaining this pattern, we aimed to test whether school racial composition explains why high income Black youth perceive more discrimination. We explored these associations by ethnicity and gender. Using data from the National Survey of American Life-Adolescent supplement (NSAL-A), the current study included 810 African American and 360 Caribbean Black youth, with a mean age of 15. Ethnicity, age, gender, income-to-needs ratio (SES), skin color, school racial composition, and perceived (daily) discrimination were measured. Using Stata 15.0 (Stata Corp., College Station, TX, USA), we fitted seven structural equation models (SEMs) for data analysis in the pooled sample based on the intersection of ethnicity and gender. Considerable gender by ethnicity variations were found in the associations between SES, school racial composition, and perceived discrimination. For African American males but not African American females or Caribbean Black males or females, school racial composition fully mediated the effect of SES on perceived discrimination. The role of inter-racial contact as a mechanism for high discrimination and poor mental health of Black American adolescents may depend on their intersection of ethnicity and gender. School racial composition may be a mechanism for increased perceived discrimination among high SES African American males.

Internalization of the model minority myth, school racial composition, and psychological distress among Asian American adolescents.

Internalization of the model minority myth, school racial composition, and psychological distress among Asian American adolescents.

A Multi-Level Analysis on School Connectedness, Family Support, and Adolescent Depression: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, 1995–1996

Objective: The purpose of this study is to gain insight into the effect of family support, school connectedness, and school environments on depressive symptoms among adolescents across racial/ethnic groups on both the student-level and school-level. Method: This study uses a sample of 4228 students (2122 girls and 2016 boys) from the public use data of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Students were measured at two time points (one year apart) on school connectedness, family support, socio-demographic factors, and the Center for Epidemiological Studies’ Depression Scale. Hierarchical Linear Modeling was used to examine potential predictors on adolescent depressive symptoms. This is, to the best of the author’s knowledge, the first study to examine the interplay of school connectedness, school racial composition, and adolescent depression. Results: School connectedness partially mediates the effects of family support on depressive symptoms, but both remain strong predictors of depressive symptoms. African American adolescents are the only racial/ethnic group that has constantly higher CES-D scores than the non-Hispanic white adolescents. School-level connectedness is positively related to students’ depressive symptoms. The racial composition of a school has different effects on students’ depressive symptoms on student’s race. Conclusions: Low perceived family support, low school connectedness, being female, and being African American are consistently associated with greater depressive symptoms one year later. The overall level of school connectedness of a school is found to be related with greater individual student’s depressive symptoms, while the effects of school proportion of minority students on students’ depressive symptoms differ significantly across the race/ethnicity of students. Future study is needed to explore the association between racial/ethnic segregation and adolescent depression while considering students’ racial/ethnic status.

Does School Racial Composition Matter to Teachers: Examining Racial Differences in Teachers’ Perceptions of Student Problems

This study investigates how teachers’ perceptions of student problems are affected by school-level student/teacher racial compositions. Utilizing the full spectrum of student/teacher racial compositions, results from nonlinear models show that students, regardless of their individual racial background, will be evaluated partially on the racial composition of the school they attend. This conclusion holds irrespective of individual teacher race, although teacher racial identity influences the extent to which school composition matters. Findings suggest that White, but not Black or Hispanic, teachers are affected by teacher racial composition when making judgments about the severity of student problems.

The role of high school racial composition and opportunities to learn in students' STEM college participation

AbstractWe analyze longitudinal data from students who spent their academic careers in North Carolina (NC) public secondary schools and attended NC public universities to investigate the importance of high school racial composition and opportunities to learn in secondary school for choosing a science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) major. We consider school racial composition and opportunities to learn as contexts that shape students' decisions regarding college majors. Results of cross‐classified hierarchical logistic models indicate that attending schools with predominantly White students is negatively associated with declaring a STEM major and with graduating with a STEM major irrespective of students' own race. The finding suggests that for students in North Carolina, attending racially isolated White high schools is related to a decrease in adolescents' participation in STEM during college.