School Exclusion Research Articles

Small things/bigger picture: Foucault, Vygotsky and exclusionary practices in schools

ABSTRACT This conceptual paper seeks to identify resonances between the theorising of Vygotsky and Foucault that can explain how events which may not be perceived to be exclusionary by educators may contribute to school exclusion or the self-exclusion of students through home education. We explore the subjective conditions of actions that deviate from the normative standards enshrined in school behaviour policies, drawing on Vygotsky’s concept of perezhivanie which, following Chisholm, we situate in an ars pathetica derived from Foucault. The small things of our title refers to incidents, interactions or micro-practices that may be perceived as insignificant by educators but which, nevertheless, have a variable and potentially profound effect on the subjective configurations or imaginings and future actions of students, while the bigger picture describes an educational landscape characterised by high rates of formal school exclusion and growing numbers of home-educated young people where, neither are in their best interests, some demographics are disproportionately represented, and both undermine claims around inclusivity. The concepts explored have relevance internationally as suggested by reports on exclusionary practices globally by transnational organisations. We argue that Vygotskian concepts can explain varied reactions to disciplinary regimes, while Foucauldian theorising introduces a reading of reactions as resistance.

Corrigendum to “Preventing school exclusions of Black children in England – a critical review of prevention strategies and interventions”

Corrigendum to “Preventing school exclusions of Black children in England – a critical review of prevention strategies and interventions”

Kids ‘at risk’ of school exclusion and youth justice involvement? Or neurodivergent children and families in need of trauma-informed support?

ABSTRACT Neurodivergent children and children with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) are significantly over-represented in the school-excluded and youth justice populations both internationally and in the UK. Given the wealth of knowledge established about the ‘school to prison pipeline’, it is crucial that we understand why this over-representation exists, and what support can be offered to children and their families to reduce school exclusions and potential youth justice involvement. This paper considers data from the Oakshire Family Support Project, that sought to work with children aged 7–11 identified as ‘at risk’ of school exclusion and potential youth justice involvement. It found that the majority of children were neurodivergent and that family support, containing many features of trauma-informed practice, both acted as a lifeline to children and their families, and significantly reduced school exclusions, improved school attendance, and reduced the likelihood of youth justice involvement in later life. The paper concludes by arguing that trauma-informed family support offers an alternative blueprint to reduce school exclusions and youth justice involvement for neurodivergent children and their families.

“Uses of History” in Research on Racialized Exclusionary School Discipline

Responding to calls to more deeply engage history in research concerning educational inequalities, the purpose of this study was to understand if and how research on racialized exclusionary school discipline makes use of the past. Drawing on a “uses of history” framework, we analyzed research studies on racialized exclusionary school discipline published between 2000 and 2022. Findings indicated that approximately 60% of articles used history and did so primarily reflective of an “informing” function utilizing select historical periods and events to frame studies of contemporary racialized school discipline. Commonly referenced periods included the 1990s specific to zero tolerance policies, mass incarceration, and the criminalization of Black youth. Articles tended to overlook relevant aspects of earlier 19 th and 20 th century histories. In addition to using history to inform, we also found that articles used history to build “explanatory bridges” that often made tacit, causal arguments connecting historical racial discrimination to that of the present. In contrast, 40% of articles were ahistorical, treating today’s trends as a contemporary issue. Overall, findings indicated that research increasingly recognizes the history of racialized exclusionary school discipline, though the typical timelines omit certain historical periods of relevance, and the uses of history themselves are often limited, with opportunities for more complex analytic use. The “uses of history” within these studies as well as examples of erroneous use, raise further questions as to how non-historians can and ought to engage the history of education in education research. We conclude by discussing contributions to research and suggestions for future applications.

Risk of suicide following school persistent absence and exclusion: an electronic cohort study in Wales, UK 2012–2019

Risk of suicide following school persistent absence and exclusion: an electronic cohort study in Wales, UK 2012–2019

Early Bullying's Long Shadow: How Victimization in Childhood and Adolescence is Associated with University Students' Mental Health and Loneliness.

Bullying victimization in childhood and adolescence is widely acknowledged for its detrimental effects on mental health and loneliness in young adulthood. However, the influence of onset time when bullying happens (in primary and/or secondary school) and of distinct forms of bullying remain underexplored. The study aims to explore the associations between seven forms of victimization (being teased or called nasty names; rumor spreading; physical harm; threat; property damage; robbery; social exclusion) during university students' primary and secondary school years and their current mental health and loneliness in China. A total of 684 university students (mean age = 19.05, SD = 1.56) completed Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale (DASS-21), UCLA Loneliness Scale, and Retrospective Bullying Questionnaire, which involves recollection of bullying victimization during primary and secondary school years. Stable victim (those who experienced bullying victimization during both primary and secondary school years) was most strongly associated with current higher levels of depression, anxiety, stress, and loneliness. Different forms of bullying victimization in primary and secondary school years were independently associated with mental health and loneliness. Specifically, rumor spreading in secondary school strongly predicted depression, anxiety, and stress, while social exclusion in primary school was closely linked to depression, anxiety, and loneliness. These findings underscore the long-term psychological impact of various forms of bullying victimization experienced in primary and secondary school years and highlight the importance of targeted interventions that address specific types of bullying in primary and secondary school years to mitigate their enduring effects on mental health in young adulthood.

A study of vulnerable student populations, exclusion and marginalization in Sierra Leonean secondary schools: a social justice theory analysis

BackgroundSierra Leone faces challenges in ensuring equitable and inclusive education for all its citizens. Certain groups, including pregnant students, student mothers, students with disabilities, economically disadvantaged students, and those without family support, are particularly vulnerable to exclusion and marginalisation. These groups are identified as vulnerable based on criteria established by organisations such as the World Health Organisation and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, which highlight the interplay between health, socio-economic status, and access to education. This study explores the extent of exclusion and marginalisation experienced by these vulnerable groups within Sierra Leonean educational institutions.MethodsBetween November and December 2023, a participatory study design was utilised, employing purposive sampling to gather diverse perspectives from 127 key informant interviews with 366 participants, including teachers, parents, students with disabilities, pregnant students, students who are mothers, and economically disadvantaged students across 11 schools in six districts in Sierra Leone. The analysis was performed manually using Microsoft Word, with four researchers responsible for organising, coding, and identifying patterns and themes within the dataset.Results Pregnant students are often stigmatized, being perceived as immoral and a negative influence on their peers. This stigma results in social isolation, bullying, and derogatory comments from both peers, and at times, teachers. Students with disabilities frequently experience bullying and social exclusion; however, there are also positive examples of peer support that facilitate their inclusion in schools and the broader community. Economically disadvantaged students are often subjected to bullying and discrimination based on their socioeconomic status, which contributes to feelings of self-isolation, reduced self-esteem, and low participation in school activities.ConclusionOur study revealed that pregnant students, students with disabilities, economically disadvantaged students, and those lacking family support face stigma, social isolation, and limited access to education in Sierra Leone. These challenges are deeply rooted in societal attitudes, parental expectations, and inadequate support from teachers. To address these systemic issues, policymakers and educators should adopt comprehensive strategies, including evidence-based community awareness campaigns to challenge harmful societal attitudes, the promotion of inclusive education practices through clear and targeted policies, and the establishment of robust support services within schools. Such measures are essential to create an equitable and inclusive educational environment for all students.

Corrigendum to “Preventing school exclusions of Black children in England – a critical review of prevention strategies and interventions”

Corrigendum to “Preventing school exclusions of Black children in England – a critical review of prevention strategies and interventions”

School absence and (primary) school connectedness: evidence from the Millennium Cohort Study

School-mandated exclusion, or school absence, is on the increase in England. Earlier analyses focused on the characteristics of children, rather than the relationship with school. Using the Millennium Cohort Study, we explore the relationship between school exclusion/school absence and school satisfaction. The Millennium Cohort Study is a UK birth cohort study of around 19,000 children born at the start of the twenty-first century and includes measures relating to school satisfaction, including liking school, being interested in school and being happy. We ask: What are the exclusion risk factors? What is the predictive relationship between school satisfaction and school exclusion and school absence? And what is the predictive relationship between school exclusion and school absence and subsequent school satisfaction over time? Our analysis applied fixed effect models based on within-child comparisons across time (age 11, 14 and 17). Results confirm that Millennium Cohort Study children miss school through exclusion (9 per cent) and absence (14 per cent), are disproportionately male and have special educational needs. School satisfaction was protective; a high level of satisfaction with school at age 7 and 11 reduced the likelihood of exclusion and truancy at age 14 in secondary school. Girls who experienced primary school exclusion reported significantly lower satisfaction with secondary school. We discuss the relationship between school satisfaction and school connectedness measures, with a view to a more nuanced understanding of the interaction between school attitudes to children and children’s attitudes to school. We conclude with tentative implications for policy and future research.

Exclusion from School and Risk of Serious Violence: A Target Trial Emulation Study

Abstract Evidence for or against a causal effect of school exclusion on offending is inhibited by random allocation not being available on ethical grounds. To advance understanding of the connection between school exclusion and offending—specifically, serious violent offending—we emulate a randomized controlled trial using a target trial framework and a linkage of national education and justice data. Across more than 20,000 matched pairs of excluded and not excluded children exclusion was associated with at least a doubling of risk for perpetrating serious violence (hazard ratio 2.05, 95% CI: 1.83, 2.29) and homicide/near-miss homicide (2.36, 95% CI: 1.04, 5.36) within 12 months of target trial entry. We discuss the implications of these findings for theory and policy in education and criminal justice as well as discussing the extent to which the observed relationships can be considered causal.

Supporting young people at risk of school exclusion through Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) and allied models: A new service model and case study example

Recent UK Government figures show that permanent exclusions and suspensions in England are increasing. Children with special educational needs (SEN), especially those with a primary need in the area of Social, Emotional and Mental Health (SEMH), are particularly vulnerable in this regard . Given the clear links between school exclusions and a wide range of negative life-outcomes – such as increased vulnerability to criminality and prison sentences – the need to find creative and innovative ways of reducing exclusions and suspensions is a clear and present priority. This paper presents a new, outcomes-based Educational Psychology (EP) service delivery model for children, families and schools, rooted in Acceptance & Commitment Therapy and related models derived from the world of Contextual Behavioural Science (CBS). The paper also presents a case study example, including intervention outcomes and processes, to illustrate how this new service delivery model takes a whole-child, contextual, person-centred and evidence-informed approach, to help create the conditions for a young person to thrive and be more fully included within mainstream education.

Health and education outcomes from adolescence to adulthood for young people with neurodisability and their peers: protocol for a population-based cohort study using linked hospital and education data from England

IntroductionChildren and young people with neurodisability (conditions affecting the brain or nervous system, creating functional impairment, eg, autism, learning disabilities, epilepsy, cerebral palsy or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder) have more complex health...

The GCSE attainment gap: Assessing the influence of permanent school exclusion

AbstractPermanent school exclusions continue to be a topic of keen interest to UK schools and policymakers. The debate over the practice has recently intensified owing to the perceived negative outcomes directly resulting from the exclusion event. Research has indeed shown that pupils who have been permanently excluded are at a greater risk for a variety of negative life outcomes when compared with their non‐excluded peers. However, that disadvantaged groups are disproportionately represented among those excluded has not been accounted for in empirical testing. Accordingly, previous measures of the influence of permanent exclusion may have over‐estimated its negative consequences because they have not controlled for disadvantageous pupil characteristics. This is a critical limitation of the research owing to the influence of confounding variables and sample selection bias. Using the National Pupil Database and a full cohort of UK pupils (N = 590,092), our analysis tracked a sample of 1490 pupils permanently excluded in year 11 of the English education system in 2018/2019. Using capped GCSE points as the academic attainment variable, we find that permanently excluded pupil scores were nearly 25 points lower than their non‐permanently excluded peers. However, when controlling for disadvantageous pupil characteristics, this difference was cut roughly in half. As such, we conclude that permanent exclusion is neither the catalyst of disadvantage nor a continuation of disadvantage on the same trajectory, but rather an accentuation of existing disadvantage. In other words, the existing trajectory of disadvantage gets steeper following the permanent exclusion event. Therefore, considering that the GCSE attainment gap found is equally attributable to both permanent exclusion and disadvantageous pupil characteristics, policymakers should both limit permanent exclusion to being a last resort and provide additional support for pupils at risk of being permanently excluded. Including a permanently excluded pupil's GCSE attainment in their former school's academic league table data incentivises schools to act in the best interests of these highly disadvantaged and vulnerable pupils.

Cutting Deep: Why Knife Crime is a Public Health Emergency in the UK

Summary: Knife crime is the leading cause of teenage homicides, reaching the UK’s highest figures in history. Stemming from deeply ingrained social determinants—including poverty, school exclusion, adverse childhood events, and geographical disparities—this crisis highlights the limitations of a law enforcement-first approach. This article explores the UK’s knife crime epidemic, its impact on our healthcare system, and the transformative potential of addressing the issue through a public health lens, focusing on its social dimensions and preventative strategies. Relevance: Young adults at risk of or already involved in knife crime often come into contact with the healthcare system; be it through external agencies (e.g., schools, youth justice services, or the social care sector) flagging up adverse behaviours, their need for support, or presenting with physical injuries. As medical students and practising physicians, it is crucial to understand the risk factors contributing to an individual’s involvement in knife crime, and to be familiar with the aid systems (e.g., charities or youth crime prevention programmes) available in your community. By doing so, you not only enhance your professional ability to support your patients but foster a more compassionate approach through a deeper understanding of their social context. Take home message: Current evidence indicates that both family and school based strategies are most effective at deterring individuals from engaging in knife crime, despite the limited data on the true efficacy of combining these interventions. Predictive studies are also scarce regarding the social benefits of broader family and support systems for victims, as well as the cost-effectiveness when considering early prevention initiatives—both of which would provide valuable insights for shaping future policies and programs. What remains clear is clinicians can have a crucial role in flagging early at-risk behaviours, and deterring crime to protect our future generations.

Analyzing the Association of School Exclusion Disciplines on Opioid Misuse Among Justice-Involved Adolescents

Analyzing the Association of School Exclusion Disciplines on Opioid Misuse Among Justice-Involved Adolescents

Från strategisk anpassning till institutionell allians

From Strategic Alignment to Institutional Alliance. A Study on LGBTQ Teachers’ Experiences of Belonging and Exclusion in Schools. The point of departure for this project is the importance of a sense of belonging to the contexts in which one is assigned to work, which in this case mainly refers to teachers’ sense of belonging to both their colleagues and their identity as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender or queer (LGBTQ). By analysing seven narratives, the text aims to contribute knowledge on how LGBTQ teachers experience breaking the hetero norm by focusing on how belonging is created. Two situations in the data stand out with respect to how belonging is reconstructed for the teachers. These are characterised by institutional alliance building to create clarity about belonging and inclusion. The data raises the question of whether a success factor for creating belonging is schools’ efforts to develop their institutional support regarding inclusion and LGBTQ awareness.

Students as subjects. Resistance, youth agency, and inclusive education through participatory action research

This article explores the importance of student voice in fostering equity and inclusion within schools. The study explores the efforts of 16 Spanish secondary school students who, through a year of online meetings, developed a guide for students to make their schools more inclusive. The group consisted of young individuals of diverse social classes, abilities, nationalities, ethnicities and genders, among others, who engaged in a Youth Participatory Action Research (YPAR) process to collectively analyse and reconstruct their realities, forming a resistance group. Four years on, they stand as a benchmark in activism for inclusive education, where, despite the ongoing oppressive reality, their positions have undergone significant changes. Research, as a tool for educational change, enables students to transition from being “objects” of an exclusionary school to subjects with agency.

Behavioral Threat Assessment and Equity in Exclusionary School Discipline

The widespread adoption of behavioral threat assessment across the United States has raised concerns about equity in exclusionary school discipline. This study examined out-of-school suspension (OSS), placement change, and expulsion rates for a statewide sample of approximately 19,000 students who received a threat assessment in 1,700 Florida schools using the Comprehensive School Threat Assessment Guidelines. Bayesian multilevel logistic regression indicated that disciplinary outcomes were strongly associated with team determination of threat seriousness, but not school-level characteristics other than greater exclusionary discipline in secondary schools. Student-level disability and low income were associated with lower rates of exclusionary discipline. Black and Hispanic students had slightly higher suspension rates, but expulsion and placement change rates were not different than White students. In contrast to the disparities typically observed in school discipline, threat assessment was associated with only small or no disparities, supporting the equity of threat assessment for groups typically disadvantaged by disproportionate exclusionary discipline. Impact Statement A Best Practices statement by the National Association of School Psychologists described behavioral threat assessment and management as a critical component of efforts to prevent violence by students, but cautioned that the process must be properly implemented so that it does not lead to the overuse of exclusionary discipline for students of color and students with disabilities. This statewide study of 19,000 threat assessments in 1,700 Florida public schools found largely equitable outcomes in out-of-school suspension, expulsion, and school transfer for students grouped by race/ethnicity, disability, and low-income status.

Martin‐Denham, S. (2024) ‘Nana, don't bother buying us new shoes, 'cos I'll not be there two minutes’: Evaluating the effectiveness of assessment hubs in re‐integrating children at risk of school exclusion into mainstream school

Martin‐Denham, S. (2024) ‘Nana, don't bother buying us new shoes, 'cos I'll not be there two minutes’: Evaluating the effectiveness of assessment hubs in re‐integrating children at risk of school exclusion into mainstream school

The education experiences of young people experiencing child criminal and sexual exploitation

AbstractSchool exclusion forms part of the processes that can increase young people's risk of offending and involvement in exploitation and harm. However, little is known about the education experiences of young people impacted by harm, such as child sexual and criminal exploitation. This paper presents findings from a survey with 17 children's and families' social care departments in England and Wales to understand the education experiences of children open to social care for extra‐familial harm. The research was undertaken at a time of significant pressure on schools and teachers to improve academic performance. The findings evidence that 45% of young people were in mainstream settings, 85% of young people had experienced some form of exclusion and this differed across gender, disability and ethnicity. Finally, the reasons for exclusion were strongly associated with young people's experiences of exploitation and harm. Two theories of containment are used to understand school exclusion: psychosocial and geopolitical. I argue that exclusionary school practices spatially contain the perceived ‘threat’ young people impacted by extra‐familial harm pose to wider school populations, to emotionally contain professional anxieties about exploitation and violence, in the absence of appropriate educational and safeguarding system responses.