In the perspective, some new methods for measuring thermodynamic (or primary) temperature that exploit quantum effects are discussed. The techniques discussed are at various stages of development, so for each, the principles of operation, current and anticipated challenges and current status and progress are presented. First, the development of a thermometer based on cavity magnomechanics for cryogenic applications is discussed. This technique links temperature to a signal derived from the phonon modes in a magnetic element coupled to a microwave cavity. Second, progress in Coulomb blockade thermometry is discussed. Advances in the manipulation of atoms using scanning probe microscopy (SPM) have led to the creation of structures, such as single-electron transistors (SETs), with physical dimensions smaller than can be achieved using traditional lithography. A Coulomb blockade thermometer (CBT) fabricated at such small scales could operate at higher temperatures than previously demonstrated. Third, Rydberg thermal radiometry is discussed. The excited states of Rydberg atoms possess large dipole moments and interact strongly with blackbody radiation (BBR). Rydberg radiometry leverages these interactions to infer a source's temperature from the effect of its emitted BBR upon the quantum dynamics of Rydberg states. Fourth, thermometry via temperature-dependent optical emission from nanoparticles is discussed, which is expected to be particularly useful for biological applications; in addition, efforts are underway to achieve primary thermometry by this mechanism. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'The redefined kelvin: progress and prospects'.

A study on the microstructure and micromechanical properties of Drosophila larval cuticle using scanning probe microscopy and viscoelastic modeling.

The temperature-controlled transformation of organic molecules at interfaces is an incipient yet powerful strategy for tailoring their structural and physico-chemical properties. In this study, we investigate the substrate- and thermal-selective reactions of bis(3,4-thiophene-fused)tetrabromo-p-benzoquinodimethane molecule (1), focusing on its behavior at distinct coinage metal interfaces, namely Au(111) and Ag(111). Combining scanning probe microscopy and theory, we demonstrate that its sequential transformations are highly dependent on the substrate material and the specific reaction temperatures. When a benzodithiophene precursor, endowed with=CBr2 units, is deposited under ultra-high vacuum (UHV) conditions on both substrates held at room temperature (RT), or annealed to 100°C in the case of Au(111), a self-assembly is formed comprising 1D covalent polymers achieved through debromination and homocoupling, which are aligned in a parallel fashion thanks to supramolecular interactions, giving rise to a 2D supramolecular polymer. However, when the substrate is held at or above 175°C during deposition, the molecular precursors (1) undergo substrate-specific intramolecular reactions. On Au(111), a major transformation into pentalenodithiophene species is observed, concomitant with the formation of benzotrithiophene. On Ag(111), instead, pentalenodithiophene species are precluded. These findings highlight the importance of substrate selection and temperature control in enabling precise molecular transformations at the nanoscale.

Abstract The temperature‐controlled transformation of organic molecules at interfaces is an incipient yet powerful strategy for tailoring their structural and physico‐chemical properties. In this study, we investigate the substrate‐ and thermal‐selective reactions of bis(3,4‐thiophene‐fused)tetrabromo‐ p ‐benzoquinodimethane molecule ( 1 ), focusing on its behavior at distinct coinage metal interfaces, namely Au(111) and Ag(111). Combining scanning probe microscopy and theory, we demonstrate that its sequential transformations are highly dependent on the substrate material and the specific reaction temperatures. When a benzodithiophene precursor, endowed with = CBr 2 units, is deposited under ultra‐high vacuum (UHV) conditions on both substrates held at room temperature (RT), or annealed to 100 °C in the case of Au(111), a self‐assembly is formed comprising 1D covalent polymers achieved through debromination and homocoupling, which are aligned in a parallel fashion thanks to supramolecular interactions, giving rise to a 2D supramolecular polymer. However, when the substrate is held at or above 175 °C during deposition, the molecular precursors ( 1 ) undergo substrate‐specific intramolecular reactions. On Au(111), a major transformation into pentalenodithiophene species is observed, concomitant with the formation of benzotrithiophene. On Ag(111), instead, pentalenodithiophene species are precluded. These findings highlight the importance of substrate selection and temperature control in enabling precise molecular transformations at the nanoscale.

This work presents a computer vision-based methodology for precise, dynamic probe-sample distance measurement in scanning probe microscopy. The technique is tested by scanning a representative planar microwave probe and monitoring its position in three dimensions using a stereoscopic optical microscope. The results demonstrate that, through triangulation, the spatial resolution of the three-dimensional system surpasses that of the individual optical microscopes. This paper also introduces an approach that addresses the challenges of camera calibration and the limited number of feature matches between images, using augmented reality tags (ARTags) and Kalman filters to ensure process continuity and robustness. A notable feature of the methodology is its ability to estimate distances without relying on specific sample characteristics or direct contact with the sample surface. The proposed algorithmsare scalable, allowing for the generation of partial or complete reconstructions of micrometric.

Automated experimentation has the potential to accelerate scientific discovery across disciplines, but its success requires systematic methods to optimize multiple, often conflicting, objectives under uncertainty. We present multi-objective Bayesian optimization (MOBO) as a general framework for balancing competing rewards and integration of human guidance in autonomous experimentation. Rather than identifying a single optimum, MOBO constructs the Pareto front, providing a principled description of all trade-off solutions and revealing the interdependencies between partially known reward functions. This enables systematic exploration of parameter space and quantifiable decision-making. Importantly, MOBO naturally supports human-in-the-loop control. Researchers can reweight objectives or adjust reference points to steer experiments toward desired outcomes, incorporating expert judgment without breaking automation. Together, MOBO and human guidance transform experimental optimization from trial-and-error tuning into a reproducible, interpretable, and customizable process, offering a scalable methodology for building trustworthy and efficient self-driving laboratories.

Probing early-stage crystallization in hydrated environments is crucial for elucidating the microscopic mechanism of crystal growth. However, capturing these processes remains challenging because of the nanometric dimensions of nanocrystals and the dynamic role of water in solvation and ion–ion interactions. Here, we employ a cryogenic scanning probe microscopy platform, which integrates qPlus-type atomic force microscopy with a frozen-solution preparation technique, to directly visualize hydrated sodium chloride (NaCl) nanocrystals at atomic resolution. We observe double- to 5-stranded ionic chain structures, which are hydrated by water dimers. Those structures promote the anisotropic growth of NaCl nanocrystals. Density functional theory calculations reveal that the water dimer can substantially stabilize the chain-shaped configurations by optimizing the water–water and water–ion interactions. In contrast, larger crystals favor isotropic crystalline lattices due to dominant bulk ionic interactions. These findings highlight the unique role of water dimers in the initial crystallization process of salts. Furthermore, this work demonstrates the potential of cryogenic scanning probe microscopy as a powerful tool for probing the crystallization process at atomic resolution, particularly in hydrated environments.

A comprehensive study of lithium iodate (α-LiIO₃) single crystals grown from mother solutions by the isothermal evaporation method has been conducted. The main focus was on the investigation of the microstructure, optical and mechanical properties, and their anisotropy. Significant microstructural heterogeneity was revealed using methods of selective chemical etching and scanning probe microscopy. It was shown that the lateral crystal growth is characterized by an anomalously high defect density (10 5 –10 7 cm -2 ) and increased surface roughness (25 nm compared to 2 nm in the central part), as well as a complex zonal and sectorial structure. Detailed measurements of Knoop and Vickers microhardness on various crystallographic planes were performed. Anisotropy of the second kind was discovered: maximum values were recorded on pyramidal faces {10Ī1} (278–283 kgf/mm 2 ), while minimum values were found on prismatic faces {10Ī0} (221–248 kgf/mm 2 ). No anisotropy of the first kind was observed on the Z -cut plane. It was demonstrated that microhardness decreases along the crystal height, which is associated with a gradient of microimpurity concentration, maximum at the beginning of growth (near the seed). Based on the analysis of the microstructure and sectorial structure, a mechanism of brittle crystal fracture under mechanical impact (shock) along sector boundaries is proposed, caused by heterogeneity and dislocation pile-ups. The obtained results are important for understanding the relationship between growth conditions, microstructure, and mechanical properties of LiIO 3 crystals, which expands the possibilities for their practical application in nonlinear optical devices and allows for the optimization of processing methods.

Hybrid heterostructures composed of graphene and perovskite oxides provide a promising platform for exploiting synergetic interfacial functionalities. Conventional fabrication methods of the hybrid heterostructures rely on transferring graphene grown on metallic substrates—a process that is time‐consuming, labor‐intensive, and prone to introducing numerous defects. In this study, we present a universal, catalyst‐free method for the direct growth of graphene on insulating substrates by using three different perovskite oxide substrates (SrTiO 3 , LaAlO 3 , and (La 0.18 Sr 0.82 )(Al 0.59 Ta 0.41 )O 3 ) using atmospheric chemical vapor deposition. Comprehensive characterization via Raman spectroscopy, X‐ray spectroscopy, scanning probe microscopy, and electron microscopy confirmed the formation of a uniform, continuous monolayer graphene on all substrates. We identified that growth temperature critically governs graphene quality, as excessive active species may lead to secondary nucleation and the formation of multilayer graphene. Notably, all substrates shared the same optimal growth conditions. Low‐temperature Raman spectroscopy and scanning tunneling microscopy of the graphene/SrTiO 3 hybrid heterostructure revealed cooperative phenomena, including substrate‐induced lattice‐phonon and electron–phonon coupling. Our work establishes a reproducible, transfer‐free fabrication route for graphene/perovskite oxide hybrid heterostructures and provides empirical support for the universal growth of graphene on insulating substrates.

We demonstrate an integrated artificial intelligence (AI) framework for autonomous atom manipulation of silver atoms on a Si(111)-(7 × 7) surface at room temperature. The framework combines four machine learning models that evaluate tip and surface conditions, detect Ag atoms, locate defect-free half-unit cells (HUCs), and evaluate manipulation conditions. This integration enables autonomous scanning tunneling microscopy operation with key functions including thermal drift correction, probe tip conditioning, and automated atom manipulation. The integrated AI framework demonstrated robust long-term operation, autonomously performing atom manipulation over 25 h. During this period, the system successfully executed both lateral transfer of Ag atoms between adjacent HUCs and vertical pickup operations without human intervention. While the manipulation success rate remains limited by tip stability challenges, the system demonstrates the feasibility of AI-driven autonomous operation at room temperature, providing a foundation for future high-throughput atomic-scale fabrication.

Electrochemical CO2 reduction (CO2RR) is a pivotal pathway towards sustainable energy storage and carbon neutrality, yet its efficiency and selectivity are governed by intricate interfacial processes at the nanoscale. This review systematically summarizes the latest advancements in scanning probe microscopy (SPM) techniques for elucidating CO2RR mechanisms. First, we describe the principles and applications of key in situ SPM methods in CO2RR, including scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) for mapping local reactant distribution, scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM) for probing the active sites, in situ electrochemical scanning tunneling microscopy (EC-STM) for atomic-scale catalyst surface imaging, and electrochemical atomic force microscopy (EC-AFM) for reaction-induced surface reconstruction. Case studies demonstrate how these techniques can be used to decode the nanoscale localized properties of catalysts. By critically examining the mechanistic understanding, we explicitly link these findings to the rational design of next-generation catalysts. Ultimately, we critically discuss challenges in spatiotemporal resolution and future directions, including ultrafast SPM for transient intermediates and AI-driven multimodal data analysis. This review emphasizes the transformative role of SPM in bridging the gap between macroscopic performance and molecular-level insights for designing next-generation CO2RR catalysts.

It has long been believed that crystalline solids will always have atomic-scale disorder, which includes vacancies, interstitials, andesite defects, local strain fields, short-range compositional changes, and amorphous pockets. The functional qualities of materials can be controlled by redefining disorder as a flexible and adjustable design parameter. Across classes of crystalline materials (oxides, chalcogenides, perovskites, semiconductors, and two-dimensional crystals), we synthesize experimental and theoretical advances demonstrate how particular types and distributions of atomic-scale disorder alter charge-carrier dynamics, optical absorption and emission, magnetic ordering, ionic conductivity, thermal transport, and mechanical response. Mechanistic relationships are highlighted, including how correlated defect complexes and local strain mediate polaron generation and carrier mobility, how interface disorder and grain-boundary structure control ion transport and catalytic activity, and how point defects alter electronic band edges and trap states. From total-scattering PDF analysis and advanced spectroscopies to aberration-corrected TEM, atom probe tomography, and scanning probe microscopies, we go over characterization tools and how data-driven models, large-scale molecular dynamics, and first-principles calculations are coming together to predict and direct disorder engineering. Successful methods for improving device performance such as defect-enabled light emission, dopant-activated ionic conductors, and disorder-stabilized phases are highlighted in case studies. We conclude with useful recommendations for intentional disorder design and point out unresolved issues, such as in-operando characterization, multiscale modelling, and controlled defect synthesis, providing a roadmap for utilizing atomic-scale disorder to develop next-generation functional materials.

Probing the interfacial structure and ion mobility in structurally-related ionic liquids via dynamic wetting measurements.

Scanning probe microscopy for rheological analysis of biomolecular condensates.

ABSTRACT The problem of antibiotic resistance requires the development of new approaches for new generation antibiotics development to increase their bioavailability, to prolong the action and to reduce toxicity. Erythromycin is one of the most toxic antibiotics, and has limited efficacy and bioavailability due to its instability in acidic environments. In this work for the first time the water‐soluble polymer complexes of Erythromycin with guanidine methacrylate were obtained by in situ polymerization and by the mixing process of the polymer in an aqueous Erythromycin solution. The products were characterized by infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, and scanning probe microscopy, and the formation of Erythromycin‐loaded guanidine polymethacrylate matrix was proven. It was demonstrated that antibactericidal and prolonged actions depend both from Erythromycin amount introduced into polymer matrix, and also from the precipitation method. Important data were obtained on human MSCs—no any toxicity was detected in the range of the concentrations 6–100 mg/mL of PMAG (guanidine polymethacrylate) and MAG (guanidine methacrylate) after 24 h of the incubation, and PMAG and MAG are not toxic at the concentrations below 25 mg/mL after 72 h of the incubation. It is important to highlight that toxicity of polymer is less than monomer. The best antibactericidal activity and prolonged action were achieved when the product was precipitated from the reaction solution by dialysis.

Achieving in situ rotation of scanning probe microscopes (SPMs) within high-field magnets presents significant technical challenges while remaining essential for micron-scale magnetic anisotropy studies. Here, we demonstrate a compact piezoelectrically driven rotatable magnetic force microscope operable within a standard 50mm bore cryogen-free superconducting magnet, achieving fields up to 12T and temperatures down to 2K. The microscope features a nested coaxial piezoelectric scanning tube (PST) design sharing a common base. In this design, the outer PST provides rigid support for the tip holder, while the inner PST actuates the sample approach. This design effectively attenuates common-mode vibration interference (e.g., from the cryocooler) while expanding the scan range by a factor of 1.74 compared to a single PST structure via reverse-direction scanning, maintaining positioning capability for micron-scale devices. Field-controlled magnetic domain evolution imaging in the 2D van der Waals magnet Fe3GaTe2 across multiple angles confirms system functionality. The results reveal strong out-of-plane anisotropy, manifested by magnetization rotation from out-of-plane to in-plane with an angle, and a characteristic 1/cos θ dependence of the saturation field, dominated by domain wall depinning energy. The vibration-resistant rotating microscope structure in cryogen-free magnets can be extended to broader SPM platforms. In addition, the outer PST enables the inertial drive of the tip holder for millimeter-scale searches.

Scanning probe microscopy electrical measurement technique and its application in low-dimensional materials: A review

Recent progress in grazing incidence small-angle neutron scattering.

Organosilicon compounds (OSCs), which consist of silicon atoms bonded to organic groups, have become vital in fields such as materials science, catalysis, and electronics. Their flexibility comes from the ability to adjust their properties by attaching different organic groups to the silicon framework. Despite many progresses, a key challenge persists in controlling the structure and reactivity of these compounds, particularly on a solid surface. Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) techniques, including scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS), and atomic force microscopy (AFM), are powerful tools for studying molecular behaviors at the atomic level. These techniques enable real space imaging and precise measurements, making them invaluable for understanding OSCs. This article examines the application of STM, STS, and AFM in the on‐surface chemistry of organosilicon, with a focus on molecular adsorption, self‐assembly, surface‐driven reactions, and innovative synthesis of nanostructures. These techniques can provide valuable insights into surface reactivity, molecular organization, and the formation of nanostructures, driving the development of advanced functional materials. Further, density functional theory offers exciting opportunities for advancing surface chemistry and nanomaterial design. This article highlights the critical role of SPM in pushing forward OSCs research and enabling the development of next‐generation organosilicon nanomaterials.

We present GridFF, an efficient method for simulating molecules on rigid substrates, derived from techniques used in protein-ligand docking in biochemistry. By projecting molecule-substrate interactions onto precomputed spatial grids with tricubic B-spline interpolation, GridFF reduces the computational cost by orders of magnitude compared to traditional pairwise atomistic models, without compromising the accuracy of forces or trajectories. The CPU implementation of GridFF in the open-source FireCore package provides a 100-1000× speedup over all-atom simulations using LAMMPS, while the GPU implementation - running thousands of system replicas in parallel - samples millions of configurations per second, enabling an exhaustive exploration of the configuration space of small flexible molecules on surfaces within minutes. Furthermore, as demonstrated in our previous application of a similar technique to high-resolution scanning probe microscopy, GridFF can be extended beyond empirical pairwise potentials to those derived from ab initio electron densities. Altogether, this unlocks accurate high-throughput modeling of molecular self-assembly, adsorption, and scanning probe manipulation in surface science.