Savannah Ecosystems Research Articles

Savannah gendered transition: how woodlands dynamics and changes in fuelwood delivery influence economic autonomy in Mali

This study examined the interactions between social and ecological dynamics in a savannah ecosystem in Mali. In a context of cotton crises and of forest reform with the creation of rural woodfuel markets managed by woodcutters’ cooperatives, we assessed the impact of changes in savannah characteristics (biomass, biodiversity) on the delivery of fuelwood by comparing woodcutting practices in selected savannah sites and households from 2003 to 2010. Our findings show that changes in the delivery of fuelwood over the study period led to a shift in activities and roles and consequently affected the social status of different savannah users. Marginalized users (women and young men) benefited from the changes in savannah structure to secure independent livelihoods, and opportunities emerged for women and young men to increase their economic autonomy. Although the observed trends did not produce a radical transformation of existing (unbalanced) gender- and age-based power relations, this study demonstrates how changes in the savannah structure may offer vulnerable people an opportunity to change certain power imbalances and limitations.

Differential patterns of nitrogen nutrition and growth cost of the indigenous Vachellia sieberiana and the introduced Chromolaena odorata in the savannah environment.

Vachellia sieberiana fixes atmospheric nitrogen (N) and distributes it back into ecosystems. We hypothesize that biological nitrogen fixation in this plant species is limited by competition from the invasive shrub, Chromolaena odorata. Competition would therefore result in the legume plant switching its limited nitrogen (N) sources in phosphorus-poor soils in savannah ecosystems when resources have to be shared. This study investigated the different patterns of N use and growth costs by a native and an introduced leguminous shrubby species. We propose that the two species sharing the same environment might result in competition. The competitive effect would induce in the indigenous legume to better utilize atmospheric-derived N modifying plant growth kinetics and plant mineral concentrations. Seedlings of V. sieberiana were cultivated in natural soil inoculum with low levels of phosphorus (mg L-1 ± SE) of 3.67 ± 0.88. The experiments were divided into two treatments where (i) seedlings of V. sieberiana were subjected to competition by cultivating them together with seedlings of C. odorata, and (ii) seedlings of V. sieberiana were cultivated independently. Although V. sieberiana was subjected to competition, the N2-fixing bacteria that occupied the nodules was Mesorhizobium species, similar to plants not subjected to competition. Total plant biomass was similar between treatments although V. sieberiana plants subjected to competition accumulated more below-ground biomass and showed higher carbon construction costs than plants growing individually. Total plant phosphorus and nitrogen decreased in seedlings of V. sieberiana under competition, whereas no differences were observed in percent N derived from the atmosphere (%NDFA) between treatments. The specific nitrogen utilization rate (SNUR) was higher in V. sieberiana plants subjected to competition while specific nitrogen absorption rate (SNAR) showed the opposite response. Vachellia sieberiana is highly adapted to nutrient-poor savannah ecosystems and can withstand competition from invasive shrubs by utilizing both atmospheric and soil nitrogen sources.

Waste valorisation opportunities for bush encroacher biomass in savannah ecosystems: A comparative case analysis of Botswana and Namibia

Bush encroachment of savannah ecosystems in countries like Botswana and Namibia has been identified as a major problem threatening biodiversity, grazing land productivity and the generation of groundwater. Incidentally, the same problem presents a huge biomass energy resource opportunity which can be exploited through various technologies. This paper defines the scope of the problem in Botswana, comparing with the well documented and partly proven case of encroacher bush waste valorisation in Namibia. This biomass is therefore a large homogeneous sustainable waste resource base that is perennially available, due to the drought-hardiness of the encroachers. It is however, necessary to conduct preliminary studies to explore prospects and possibilities, benchmarking with globally renowned biomass experts like Germany and the United Kingdom. The study shows that the issue of bush encroachment in Botswana has been documented from as far back as 1971, though earlier studies were mostly evaluations from a natural resources perspective which did not proffer solutions. Besides a project by United Nations Development Programme to try and benchmark from Namibia’s biomass to charcoal initiatives from their encroacher bushes, there is no documented effort by Botswana to derive value out of the vast resource which has invaded thousands of hectares of rangelands. Meanwhile, Namibia has recorded significant success in converting the encroacher bushes into wood chips for use in boilers (heat production) for a cement plant, charcoal for domestic and commercial heating/cooking and briquettes for power generation. Feasibility studies have been made for the possibility of scaling up these projects, while exploring other existing and emerging sustainable technologies like pelletizing, gasification, pyrolysis and engineered wood products. Essentially, a review of the existing problem in Botswana, experiences for various cases and recommendations by experts make this compilation valuable for the nation and other regions experiencing the same problem.

Deep Communal Nesting by Yellow-Spotted Monitors in a Desert Ecosystem: Indirect Evidence for a Response to Extreme Dry Conditions

Abstract In oviparous reptiles with no parental care, the choice of nest site is a mother's final investment in her offspring. Although linkages between nest site choice, egg temperatures, and embryonic success have been well studied, much less is known about analogous linkages with soil moisture encompassing developing embryos. Most ground-nesting reptiles nest at depths <25 cm, with the deepest nests <1.0 m deep. Recently, however, the nests of two species of monitor lizards (Varanus panoptes and V. gouldii) have been discovered at depths of 2.3–3.0 m, suggesting that nesting at extreme depths in these species is an adaptive response to the lack of sufficient soil moisture at shallower depths. Herein, we examine this idea with V. panoptes, specifically predicting that deeper nests in a desert ecosystem compared with those in a savannah ecosystem are attributable to differences in the magnitude of rainfall. We excavated a communal nesting warren to a depth of 4 m and identified 11 fresh nests and 99 hatc...

Cryptic niche differentiation in West African savannah termites as indicated by stable isotopes

1. Termites consume a wide range of plant material at different stages of decomposition and, accordingly, have been classified into ‘feeding groups’. African savannah ecosystems harbour many termite species, yet most belong to Termitidae. Especially striking is the co‐occurrence of up to eight Macrotermitinae and five Trinervitermes species, each having apparently identical trophic niches, i.e. fungus‐growers and grass‐feeders, respectively.2. This study examined stable isotope signatures of 15N and 13C of West African savannah termites to test the validity of existing feeding group concepts and whether there is fine‐scaled niche differentiation of species within feeding groups. Despite a phylogenetic signal that species from the same subfamily and congenerics have correlated isotope signatures, evidence of niche differentiation was found.3. Interestingly, species with similar δ15N values generally differed in δ13C values, and vice versa. The dominant mound‐building fungus‐grower Macrotermes bellicosus had the lowest δ15N values among all fungus‐growers, indicating that it occupies a different trophic niche.4. This fine‐scaled differentiation along the trophic niche axis can help to explain the coexistence of so many apparently identical termite species.

Influence of termites on the soil seed bank in an African savannah

AbstractIn savannah ecosystems, termites drive key ecosystem processes, such as primary production through creation of patchiness in soil nutrients availability around their nests. In this study, we evaluated the role of termites in altering the soil seed bank size, an important ecosystem component that has often been overlooked in previous work. Data on above ground vegetation and soil seed bank samples were collected from four microhabitats, that is, the wooded mound, unwooded mound, tree sub‐canopy and the open grassland matrix in a protected game reserve in south‐central Zimbabwe. The seedling emergence method was then used to identify species present in the soil samples. One‐way analysis of variance followed by Tukey's multiple comparison tests was executed to test for significant differences in plant species richness among the four microhabitats. The results indicate that plant species richness was high on wooded termite mound but did not differ between the unwooded and the sub‐canopy microhabitats. The open grassland microhabitat had the lowest plant species richness. The influence of termites on the soil seed bank composition was also life form specific. The herb and woody life forms had significantly (α = 0.05) higher species richness in the soil seed bank at wooded and unwooded termite mounds when compared to the other two microhabitats. Overall, these results imply that termites alter the soil seed bank and the findings enhance our understanding of the significant role termites play in regulating processes in savannah ecosystem.

Impacts of large mammals on movements of the pouched mouse (Saccostomus mearnsi) in central Kenya

AbstractPopulations of large wild mammals are declining worldwide, while the abundance of livestock is increasing. The absence of large mammals frequently leads to increases in the abundance of small mammals such as rodents, but little is known about how the loss of large mammals affects the behaviour of small mammals. To investigate this question, we analysed long‐term data collected at the Kenya Long‐term Exclosure Experiment, which excludes different combinations of large mammals from a savannah ecosystem in central Kenya. We investigated the effects of excluding large mammals, both wild and domestic, on the movements of the pouched mouse (Saccostomus mearnsi), the most common species of small mammal in this habitat. Mice moved ~20% more in the presence of wildlife, but their movements were not significantly affected by the presence of cattle. An index of intraspecific contacts between mice was higher at higher mouse densities, and these high densities were more likely when wildlife and cattle were absent. The results suggest that the absence of large mammals led to higher densities of small mammals, which resulted in a greater probability of intraspecific contacts, despite lower average movement distances.

Deforestation ticks up in Brazil's savannah

The Cerrado is the most threatened biome in Brazil, environmentalists proclaim. Scientists raise alarm about the ongoing threat to the native savannah ecosystem bordering the Amazon rainforest.

Evolutionary diversification of the African achyranthoid clade (Amaranthaceae) in the context of sterile flower evolution and epizoochory.

Many African genera of the Amaranthaceae exhibit unique inflorescences that include sterile flowers modified to hooks or spines. Considering that the abundance of large terrestrial herbivores increased on the African continent with the expansion of grassland and savannah ecosystems, modified sterile flowers could have been an innovation that boosted the diversification of an African achyranthoid clade of Amaranthaceae, with large animals serving dispersal. We generated an extensively sampled phylogeny comprising 26 of the 31 achyranthoid genera as well as representatives of all other lineages of Amaranthaceae. Phylogenetic tree inference employed four genomic regions, using parsimony, likelihood and Bayesian inference methods. We estimated divergence times, evaluated trait-dependant changes and species diversification rates using state-dependent speciation and extinction models, and reconstructed ancestral character states for modified sterile flowers. The achyranthoids were found to be a major clade of the Amaranthaceae, comprising mostly African members. Phylogenetic relationships within this clade were well resolved and supported two main subclades. Several genera were found to be polyphyletic. Our results indicate that the achyranthoids started to diversify ~28 million years ago, and that modified sterile flowers evolved multiple times. An asymmetry in transition rates towards the gain of sterile flowers was observed, whereas no trait-dependent increase in species diversification rates was detected. Bayesian rate heterogeneity analyses indicated that the achyranthoids diversified without significant rate shifts. The accumulation of modified sterile flowers within achyranthoids appears to result from the higher transition rates in favour of modified sterile flowers. Multiple gains suggest an adaptive value for this trait. However, epizoochory does not appear to fuel species diversification, possibly due to extensive gene flow through regularly migrating mammals, which limits the possibility of speciation by isolation.

Reflections on nutrition in biological anthropology.

Reflections on nutrition in biological anthropology.

A literature review of mammalian research respective to the Akagera ecosystem in Rwanda

The Akagera NP (and the Mutara GR) in north-eastern Rwanda are considered part of the most complex and biodiversity rich savannah ecosystem in eastern Africa. Following the violent past of Rwanda, the park has recovered from civil war, poaching and overgrazing, counting today more than 12,000 large mammals. Since proclamation in 1934, a wealth of ecological research was carried in these protected areas. This literature review summarizes the available literature and puts it into a historical context, compiling more than 90 books, book chapters, and journal articles but also unpublished theses and reports respective to the ecology and conservation of mammals.Keywords: literature review, Akagera ecosystem, conservation history, mammals

Estimating fractional cover of plant functional types in African savannah from harmonic analysis of MODIS time-series data

ABSTRACTAssessments of tree/grass fractional cover in savannahs using remote sensing are challenging due to the heterogeneous mixture of the two plant functional types. Time-series decomposition models can be used to characterize vegetation phenology from satellite data, but have rarely been used for attributing phenological signal components to different plant functional types. Here, tree/grass dynamics are assessed in savannah ecosystems using time-series decomposition of 14 years of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) normalized difference vegetation index data acquired from 2002 to 2015. The decomposition method uses harmonic analysis and tests the individual harmonic terms for statistical significance. Field data of fractional cover of trees and grasses were collected for 28 plots in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Matching MODIS pixels were analysed for their tree/grass phenological signals. Tree/grass annual and interannual variability were then assessed based on the harmonic models. In most harmonic cycles, grass-dominated sites had higher amplitudes than tree-dominated sites, while the tree green-up started earlier than grasses, before the start of the wet season. While changes in tree phenology are gradual, grasses present higher variability over time. Tree cover showed a significant correlation with the amplitude (r (correlation coefficient) = −0.59, p = 0.001) and phase of the first harmonic term (r = −0.73, p = 0.0001) and the number of cycles of the second harmonic term (r = 0. 56, p = 0.002). Grass cover was also significantly correlated with the amplitude (r = 0. 51, p = 0.005) and phase of the first harmonic term (r = 0.55, p = 0.002) and the number of cycles of the second harmonic term (r = −0.52, p = 0.005). The positive correlation of grass cover with phase and negative correlation with number of cycles is indicating a late greening period and higher variability, respectively. Tree cover estimated from the phase of the strongest harmonic term showed a positive correlation with field-measured tree cover (R2 (coefficient of determination) = 0.55, p < 0.01, slope = 0.93, root mean square error = 13.26%). The estimated tree cover also had a strong correlation with the woody cover map (r = 0.78, p < 0.01) produced by Bucini. The results show that MODIS time-series data can be used to estimate the fractional tree cover in heterogeneous savannahs from the phase of the plant functional type’s phenological behaviour. This study shows that harmonic analysis is able to discriminate between fractional cover by trees and grasses in savannahs. The quantitative analysis of tree/grass phenology from satellite time-series data enables a better understanding of the dynamics of the tree/grass competition and coexistence.

Annual net primary productivity of a cyanobacteria-dominated biological soil crust in the Gulf Savannah, Queensland, Australia

Abstract. Biological soil crusts (biocrusts) are a common element of the Queensland (Australia) dry savannah ecosystem and are composed of cyanobacteria, algae, lichens, bryophytes, fungi and heterotrophic bacteria. Here we report how the CO2 gas exchange of the cyanobacteria-dominated biocrust type from Boodjamulla National Park in the north Queensland Gulf Savannah responds to the pronounced climatic seasonality and on their quality as a carbon sink using a semi-automatic cuvette system. The dominant cyanobacteria are the filamentous species Symplocastrum purpurascens together with Scytonema sp. Metabolic activity was recorded between 1 July 2010 and 30 June 2011, during which CO2 exchange was only evident from November 2010 until mid-April 2011, representative of 23.6 % of the 1-year recording period. In November at the onset of the wet season, the first month (November) and the last month (April) of activity had pronounced respiratory loss of CO2. The metabolic active period accounted for 25 % of the wet season and of that period 48.6 % was net photosynthesis (NP) and 51.4 % dark respiration (DR). During the time of NP, net photosynthetic uptake of CO2 during daylight hours was reduced by 32.6 % due to water supersaturation. In total, the biocrust fixed 229.09 mmol CO2 m−2 yr−1, corresponding to an annual carbon gain of 2.75 g m−2 yr−1. Due to malfunction of the automatic cuvette system, data from September and October 2010 together with some days in November and December 2010 could not be analysed for NP and DR. Based on climatic and gas exchange data from November 2010, an estimated loss of 88 mmol CO2 m−2 was found for the 2 months, resulting in corrected annual rates of 143.1 mmol CO2 m−2 yr−1, equivalent to a carbon gain of 1.7 g m−2 yr−1. The bulk of the net photosynthetic activity occurred above a relative humidity of 42 %, indicating a suitable climatic combination of temperature, water availability and light intensity well above 200 µmol photons m−2 s−1 photosynthetic active radiation. The Boodjamulla biocrust exhibited high seasonal variability in CO2 gas exchange pattern, clearly divided into metabolically inactive winter months and active summer months. The metabolic active period commences with a period (of up to 3 months) of carbon loss, likely due to reestablishment of the crust structure and restoration of NP prior to about a 4-month period of net carbon gain. In the Gulf Savannah biocrust system, seasonality over the year investigated showed that only a minority of the year is actually suitable for biocrust growth and thus has a small window for potential contribution to soil organic matter.

Evaluating the Mid-Infrared Bi-spectral Index for improved assessment of low-severity fire effects in a conifer forest

Remote sensing products provide a vital understanding of wildfire effects across a landscape, but detection and delineation of low- and mixed-severity fire remain difficult. Although data provided by the Monitoring Trends in Burn Severity (MTBS) project are frequently used to assess severity in the United States, alternative indices can offer improvement in the measurement of low-severity fire effects and would be beneficial for future product development and adoption. This research note evaluated one such alternative, the Mid-Infrared Bi-Spectral Index (MIRBI), which was developed in savannah ecosystems to isolate spectral changes caused by burning and reduce noise from other factors. MIRBI, differenced MIRBI (dMIRBI) and burn severity indices used by MTBS were assessed for spectral optimality at distinguishing severity and the ability to differentiate between unburned and burned canopy in a conifer forest. The MIRBI indices were better at isolating changes caused by burning and demonstrated higher spectral separability, particularly at low severity. These findings suggest that MIRBI indices can provide an enhanced alternative or complement to current MTBS products in high-canopy-cover forests for applications such as discernment of fire perimeters and unburned islands, as well as identification of low-severity fire effects.

Nutrient availability and organic matter content under different soil use and management

The use of the system, handling and time adoption of these can effectively alter the quantity of organic matter (OM) and change the cycling of nutrients in the soil. This paper aimed at evaluating the availability of nutrients and OM contents in an Oxisol (Xanthic Ferralsol) located within a Cerrado area (Savannah ecosystem) of the Piaui State in Brazil, after years under different soil use and management systems. The treatments consisted of soils under no-tillage for three, six and nine years (NTS3, NTS6, and NTS9); pasture for two and six years (PA2 and PA6, respectively); eucalyptus plantation for six and 12 years (EU6 and EU12); conventional tillage system for two and eight years (CTS2 and CTS8) and native Cerrado (NC), which represented conditions of equilibrium. For each area, we assessed the levels of OM, pH in water, Al3+, H+ + Al3+, P, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ at four soil depths (0.0-0.10, 0.10-0.20, 0.20-0.30 and 0.30-0.40 m) as well as the levels of Cu, Mn, Zn, Fe, B and S at 0.0-0.40 m depth, all with four replicates. Use and management systems provided significant effects on the availability of soil macronutrients and OM contents, but have inadequate levels of micronutrients in the soil, especially Boron. In areas under tillage, there is an increase in pH, availability of nutrients and OM in the surface layer, especially during the first six years of adoption of the system, while in the areas with nine years; there were an increase in P levels in subsurface. The areas under cultivation with eucalyptus show higher potential in increasing the OM levels in soil subsurface layers.

The importance of vegetation density for tourists' wildlife viewing experience and satisfaction in African savannah ecosystems.

Southern African protected areas (PAs) harbour a great diversity of animals, which represent a large potential for wildlife tourism. In this region, global change is expected to result in vegetation changes, such as bush encroachment and increases in vegetation density. However, little is known on the influence of vegetation structure on wildlife tourists’ wildlife viewing experience and satisfaction. In this study, we collected data on vegetation structure and perceived mammal densities along 196 road transects (each 5 km long) and conducted a social survey with 651 questionnaires across four PAs in three Southern African countries. Our objectives were 1) to assess visitors’ attitude towards vegetation, 2) to test the influence of perceived mammal density and vegetation structure on the easiness to spot animals, and 3) on visitors’ satisfaction during their visit to PAs. Using a Boosted Regression Tree procedure, we found mostly negative non-linear relationships between vegetation density and wildlife tourists’ experience, and positive relationships between perceived mammal densities and wildlife tourists’ experience. In particular, wildlife tourists disliked road transects with high estimates of vegetation density. Similarly, the easiness to spot animals dropped at thresholds of high vegetation density and at perceived mammal densities lower than 46 individuals per road transect. Finally, tourists’ satisfaction declined linearly with vegetation density and dropped at mammal densities smaller than 26 individuals per transect. Our results suggest that vegetation density has important impacts on tourists’ wildlife viewing experience and satisfaction. Hence, the management of PAs in savannah landscapes should consider how tourists perceive these landscapes and their mammal diversity in order to maintain and develop a sustainable wildlife tourism.

Movement and Resource Selection of Baird's Pocket Gopher within a Longleaf Pine Ecosystem

Abstract Our objectives were to describe movement patterns and resource selection of Geomys breviceps (Baird's Pocket Gopher) within a Pinus palustris (Longleaf Pine) savannah ecosystem in west-central Louisiana. Radio-tagged Baird's Pocket Gophers exhibited high fidelity to burrow systems with a median interlocation distance of 0 m and median minimumconvex-polygon home range of 353 m2. The resource selection function (RSF) predicted increasing relative likelihood of Baird's Pocket Gopher use with increasing forb cover and decreasing use with increasing cover by pine stems <25 cm in diameter and increasing midstory pine basal area. The RSF supports continued application of Picoides borealis (Red-cockaded Woodpecker) recovery guidelines to benefit Baird's Pocket Gophers.

Disturbance feedbacks on the height of woody vegetation in a savannah: a multi-plot assessment using an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)

ABSTRACTDisturbances affect the woody, i.e. trees and shrubs, and herbaceous vegetation in savannah ecosystems worldwide. In Northern Namibia, livestock grazing and fires depict two prominent agents of disturbance. These affect the structural parameters of vegetation such as the height of woody species. Remote sensing is a tool to quantify such structural parameters. In particular, Image-Based Point Clouds (IBPCs) obtained from unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are nowadays increasingly used for three-dimensional (3D) remote-sensing applications. Here we aim at deriving the height of woody stands through a multi-plot UAV campaign (n = 19) carried out at the end of the dry season. We use direct georeferencing from the navigation-grade instruments on board the UAV in a Structure-from-Motion (SfM) approach. Watershed segmentation is applied to derive plot-scale height metrics (maximum, mean, and median) based on delineated individuals. Fire and grazing – both individually and synergistically – are then investigated for their impacts on UAV-derived height metrics. The results indicate good agreement between the UAV-derived and in situ-measured height metrics on the plot scale (coefficient of determination (R2) approximately 0.7, root mean square error (RMSE) <1.9 m). Underestimations of height are apparent with large, leafless trees. Clumping of equally sized individuals complicated their correct delineation. Grazing was found to be significant for all height metrics as well as in combination with fire for the plots’ maxima. We conclude that the approach applied here is able to reproduce the plot-scale heights of woody vegetation with acceptable accuracy. We attribute the observed height reductions with the simultaneous presence of disturbances to legacy effects.

Wood biomass availability for smallholder charcoal production in dry forest and savannah ecosystems of south-western Madagascar

Deforestation has accelerated over the last decades in south-western Madagascar due to overutilization of natural resources, slash and burn agriculture and charcoal production. To provide information for sustainable forest management, we assessed the biomass availability of woody species frequently used for charcoal production. Semi-structured household interviews (N = 63) were conducted to collect information on charcoal production activities and identify the species used for this activity. A cluster sampling approach was applied to inventory woody species and measure DBH, total height and crown diameter. Allometric equations for wood biomass and wood volume estimation were established for Acacia bellula (N = 20), Acacia rovumae (N = 18), Albizia polyphylla (N = 17), Cedrelopsis spp. (N = 13) and mixed species (N = 43).Altogether, 68 species were found to be used for charcoal production. High correlations between DBH, total height and wood biomass were observed (R2 varied between 0.78 and 0.99). Wood biomass increased with distance to settlements and significantly differed between land cover types with highest values in the dry forest. Overall, tree biomass near villages was lower than biomass inside the National Park and in other semi-arid regions, mainly due to anthropogenic activities such as charcoal production.

Adaptation to Climatic Hazards in the Savannah Ecosystem: Improving Adaptation Policy and Action.

People in Ghana's savannah ecosystem have historically experienced a range of climatic hazards that have affected their livelihoods. In view of current climate variability and change, and projected increases in extreme events, adaptation to climate risks is vital. Policies have been put in place to enhance adaptation across sub-Saharan Africa in accordance with international agreements. At the same time, local people, through experience, have learned to adapt. This paper examines current policy actions and their implementation alongside an assessment of barriers to local adaptation. In doing so it links adaptation policy and practice. Policy documents were analysed that covered key livelihood sectors, which were identified as climate sensitive. These included agriculture, water, housing and health policies, as well as the National Climate Change Policy. In-depth interviews and focus group discussions were also held with key stakeholders in the Upper East Region of Ghana. Analyses were carried using thematic content analysis. Although policies and actions complement each other, their integration is weak. Financial, institutional, social, and technological barriers hinder successful local implementation of some policy actions, while lack of local involvement in policy formulation also hinders adaptation practice. Integration of local perspectives into policy needs to be strengthened in order to enhance adaptation. Coupled with this is a need to consider adaptation to climate change in development policies and to pursue efforts to reduce or remove the key barriers to implementation at the local level.