Satiation Effect Research Articles

Biofeedback-Assisted Relaxation, Exposure, and Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment of Gastric Bypass Surgery Related Anxiety

An unusual case of a “food phobia,” which developed more than a year after the patient underwent a gastric bypass procedure, is described. A brief description of the normal digestive process and Roux-en-Y procedure is presented followed by a discussion of common surgical outcome, the patient’s presenting difficulties, assessment data, case conceptualization, and course of treatment. The casewas challenging because, as with all clinical health psychology cases, it is often difficult to tease out the physical and psychological aspects of the problem. It was also difficult to establish an exposure hierarchy due to the satiation effect of food. Progress was made, however, by applying known principles of behavior change to this novel complaint. The case demonstrates the utility of a comprehensive functional analysis as well as the impact of incorporating the patient’s strengths into the treatment plan.

The effect of semantic satiation on a double lexical decision task

It is known that a semantic satiation effect depends upon the characteristics of the task. For example, the effect has been found on a category decision task, but not found on a lexical decision task. Based on these results, previous studies concluded that because the task is influenced from factors other than semantic access, the lexical decision task was inadequate for semantic satiation. On the contrary, this study found the effect on a variation of a lexical decision task. In Experiment 1, 16 college students performed a category-matching judgement. In Experiment II, 24 students performed a lexical decision on a pair of letter strings. The results of both experiments showed the semantic satiation. These results suggested that a lexical decision task was able to detect the satiation as long as the task was complicated.

The Effects of Satiation on Strike Mode and Prey Capture Kinematics in the Largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides

The feeding mechanism and kinematics of prey capture have been studied in many fishes. However, the effects of satiation on the strike mode and prey capture kinematics have never been directly measured. We analyze 12 kinematic variables to determine the effects of satiation on prey capture in five largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides, by using high speed videography. We also present the first experimental test for modulatory capabilities in response to satiation, by using the ram-suction index. Significant changes in the kinematic variables of maximum lower jaw depression, maximum gape distance, maximum hyoid depression, time to maximum hyoid depression, and time from maximum hyoid depression to recovery were seen with the effects of satiation. Change in the kinematic variables imply a decrease in jaw opening velocity and the magnitude of suction velocity created during repetitive strikes by M. salmoides with increasing satiation. The bass primarily uses a ram strike mode, with some suction bites occasionally. Ram-suction index analyses suggests that M. salmoides does not modulate strike mode in response to satiation. However, the bass modulate prey capture kinematics without altering strike mode with the effects of satiation. Prey capture success decreases in each bass, as the probability of a successful prey capture event becomes lower, with increasing satiation. These findings demonstrate that satiation can have major effects on prey capture kinematics and future studies of feeding kinematics should account for satiation in their analyses.

Experimental provisioning increases play in free-ranging meerkats

The sensitivity of play to variations in food availability has been cited as evidence of the costliness of play, since energetically stressed animals dispense with costly behaviours. However, the causality of the relationship between nutrition and play has not been adequately tested. Using weight gain as a measure of food intake, we documented the food consumption of free-ranging meerkat, Suricata suricatta, pups and found that long-term nutritional status (weight gain over a 6-week period) was positively correlated with rates of play. We confirmed the causality of this relationship by conducting long-term (4–8 weeks) provisioning experiments that raised the nutritional status of experimental pups, subadults and adults. Experimental animals more than doubled their rate of play compared with their nonprovisioned controls. Short-term variations in food consumption (daily weight gain) were not correlated with subsequent rates of play, and we used a short-term feeding experiment to document the transitory effects of hunger satiation. We established that an increase in available energy contributed to the increase in rates of play, rather than the animals simply having more time available to play as a result of being released from the constraints of foraging. We conclude that play in meerkats was energetically costly, and must be adaptive given that the cost of play to juveniles (in terms of future reproductive success) was potentially high. Copyright 2002 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Effect of Satiation on Brain Activity in Obese and Lean Women

To investigate the response of the brains of women to the ingestion of a meal. We used measures of regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF), a marker of neuronal activity, by positron emission tomography to describe the functional anatomy of satiation, i.e., the response to a liquid meal in the context of extreme hunger (36-hour fast) in 10 lean (BMI < or = 25 kg/m(2); 32 +/- 10 years old, 61 +/- 7 kg; mean +/- SD) and 12 obese (BMI > or = 35 kg/m(2); 30 +/- 7 years old, 110 +/- 14 kg) women. In lean and obese women, satiation produced significant increases in rCBF in the vicinity of the prefrontal cortex (p < 0.005). Satiation also produced significant decreases in rCBF in several regions including the thalamus, insular cortex, parahippocampal gyrus, temporal cortex, and cerebellum (in lean and obese women), and hypothalamus, cingulate, nucleus accumbens, and amygdala (in obese women only; all p < 0.005). Compared with lean women, obese women had significantly greater increases in rCBF in the ventral prefrontal cortex and had significantly greater decreases in the paralimbic areas and in areas of the frontal and temporal cortex. This study indicates that satiation elicits differential brain responses in obese and lean women. It also lends additional support to the hypothesis that the paralimbic areas participate in a central orexigenic network modulated by the prefrontal cortex through feedback loops.

The Importance of Catch Motives to Recreational Anglers: The Effects of Catch Satiation and Deprivation

Motivation theory suggests that if anglers fail to catch the size, number, or species of fish they most prefer to catch, they will experience the condition of catch-deprivation. Similarly, if anglers succeed in catching the size, number, or species of fish they most prefer to catch, they will experience the condition of catch-satiation. It was hypothesized that the importance trout anglers attach to catching the size, number, or species of fish they most prefer will increase as the level of catch-deprivation increases. Our results show that trout anglers place significantly more importance on catching their preferred size, number, and/or species of fish on their next trip under conditions of increasing catch-deprivation than under conditions of catch-satiation. These results are consistent with the concepts of motivation theory and our predictions. This study represents an extension of the current state of knowledge and conceptual development concerning angler motives and further advances our understanding of the angling experience.

Effects of satiation on feeding and swimming behaviour of planktivores

Hunger affects the feeding and swimming behaviour in fish. After 36 h of food deprivation, the feeding and swimming behaviour of Pseudorasbora parva (Cyprinidae) was studied under different prey densities (0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10 and 25 of Daphnia pulex per liter). The initial feeding rates showed marked variations in relation to prey availability. Under high prey densities, the initial feeding rate of fish was higher and subsequently decreased faster, when compared to those feeding under low prey densities. At higher prey densities, two factors were involved: that of higher prey encounter rates and also the attainment of food satiation at a faster rate. Across all prey densities, the feeding rates of fish reached a plateau after satiation. The swimming speed of fish was found to be negatively related to the prey density and a significant change in swimming speed was noted as being directly related to the level of satiation. It was found that the increasing satiation level greatly influenced the handling time and reactive volume of predator, which finally caused reduced feeding rates.

Drug-intake regulation and the interplay between economic costs and benefits: comment on Lynch and Carroll (2001).

W. J. Lynch and M. E. Carroll's (2001) review argues against aversive effects and for satiation and direct effects as the mechanisms responsible for the descending limb of the dose-response function. Analysis is provided that suggests they may prematurely dispose of the aversive-effects account. Further analysis of the evidence for satiation and direct effects supports the authors' contention that neither can be exclusively supported. A brief behavioral-economic analysis of drug-intake regulation and the descending limb of the dose-response function is presented.

Semantic Satiation and Lexical Ambiguity Resolution

This study examines the effects of semantic satiation on lexical ambiguity resolution. On a given trial, participants were presented with a word triad. The first word (e.g., HEART) was presented on average 2.5, 12.5, or 22.5 times, and then participants received 2 new words for relatedness judgments. The first of the two new words was always a homograph (e.g., "ORGAN") and the other word was a related or unrelated pairmate (e.g., "KIDNEY"). In Experiment 1, when blocks of trials were intermixed with concordant (e.g., "HEART-ORGAN-KIDNEY"), discordant (e.g., "PIANO-ORGAN-KIDNEY"), and neutral (e.g., "CEILING-ORGAN-KIDNEY") trials, participants did not produce evidence of semantic satiation. In a second experiment in which only concordant and neutral trials were presented, however, participants did produce evidence of semantic satiation in the concordant condition. Taken together, Experiments 1 and 2 indicate that semantic satiation of the context-appropriate meaning of a homograph may impede ambiguity resolution.

On the locus of the semantic satiation effect: evidence from event-related brain potentials.

The present study sought to determine whether semantic satiation is merely a by-product of adaptation or satiation of upstream, nonsemantic perceptual processes or whether the effect can have a locus in semantic memory. This was done by measuring event-related brain potentials (ERPs) in a semantic word-detection task involving multiple presentations of primes and critical related and unrelated words in three experiments involving visual (Experiment 1) and auditory (Experiments 2A and 2B) stimuli. Primes varied in their type case (Experiment 1) or pitch (Experiment 2B) in order to discourage sensory adaptation. Prime satiation and relatedness of the primes to the critical word had interacting effects on ERP amplitude to critical words, particularly within the time-window of the N400 component. Because numerous studies have indicated a role for the N400 in semantic processing, modulation of the N400 relatedness effect by prime satiation (with little or no contribution from perceptual adaptation) suggests that semantic memory can be directly satiated, rather than the cost to semantic processing necessarily resulting from impoverishment of perceptual inputs.

Satiation in name and face recognition.

Massive repetition of a word can lead to a loss of meaning (i.e., semantic satiation). Satiation is a general property of neurons and so it would be expected that semantic satiation would be found for stimuli other than words. Three experiments examined the occurrence of satiation for the repetition of names, the visualization of faces, and the repetition of faces. Reaction times to a decision based on a repeated name or face were longer following 30 repetitions than following 3 repetitions, indicating that satiation had occurred. Mere visualization over the same time interval, however, did not elicit satiation effects.

Varying wheel-running reinforcer duration within a session: effect on the revolution-postreinforcement pause relation.

Previous investigations of wheel-running reinforcement that manipulated reinforcer duration across conditions showed a strong relation between wheel-running rate and average postreinforcement pause (PRP) duration. To determine if the basis of this relation across conditions was a local effect of fatigue or satiation, the correlation between revolutions run and the duration of the immediately following PRP was investigated under conditions in which reinforcer duration was either constant or variable within a session. Seven male Wistar rats pressed a lever on a fixed-interval 60-s reinforcement schedule with the opportunity to run for 60 s as the reinforcing consequence. In the constant-duration condition, the duration of the reinforcer was always 60 s. In the variable-duration condition, the duration of the reinforcer varied between 2 and 240 s with a mean of 60 s. Mean correlations between revolutions run and the next PRP duration for constant, variable, and constant conditions were -.07, .20, and -.07, respectively. Although the positive correlation in the variable-duration condition is consistent with an effect of momentary fatigue or satiation, little of the variance in PRP duration appears to be attributable to these factors.

Role of satiation in the functional response of a piscivore, largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)

We evaluated whether satiation regulates the predation rates of a piscivore, largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), in natural settings. A functional response model indicated that predation rates can be reduced by satiation when mean prey density is high or when prey encounters are highly patchy. We then used bioenergetics modeling to estimate the predation rates of individual bass in four lakes during a 16-year period and used stomach content mass in diet samples to evaluate the variability in daily predation rates. Predation rates, expressed as the proportion (p) of the maximum daily consumption rate, were low (mode = 0.3, mean = 0.4). Stomach fullness (s), expressed as the proportion of the stomach fullness associated with the maximum sustainable consumption rate, was highly variable, and 13% of all bass diets had s &gt; 1, indicating that bass could opportunistically forage at rates exceeding their maximum sustainable rate. The low predation rates and the ability to consume prey at rates exceeding the maximum sustainable rate make it unlikely that satiation was an important constraint on bass predation rates. Thus, satiation effects widely represented in modeling studies may be a rare component in piscivore-prey interactions, while prey behavior may be a more important component governing predation rates.

Thyrotropin releasing hormone decreases alcohol intake and preference in rats

Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) has been reported to reduce stress- and deprivation-induced eating, hypothetically by induction of satiation. Early work demonstrated thyroid extracts reduced alcohol intake, and recent research shows a TRH analog specifically inhibits alcohol preference. We determined whether parenteral administration of TRH reduces alcohol consumption and choice in a manner consistent with a satiation effect. Water-restricted ad lib fed female and male rats ( n = 12) were given access to 5% w/v ethanol 0 or 30 minutes after intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of TRH. TRH (20–40 mg/kg) inhibited alcohol intake only if injected immediately before alcohol access. Inhibition of alcohol intake was reliably accompanied by increased production of fecal boli but not by reliably decreased food intake. Rats given a choice of 2% w/v ethanol and water decreased alcohol preference after TRH (20 mg/kg) but did not reduce total fluid intake. Results are partially consistent with the hypothesis of TRH as one of several functional elements in the integrative neuropeptide control of alcohol consumption via short-term satiation.

The development and validation of the state and trait food-cravings questionnaires

We describe three studies on the development and psychometric properties of state and trait versions of a multidimensional Food Cravings Questionnaire (FCQ-S and FCQ-T). In Study 1, we used confirmatory factor analysis to help refine the instruments. Results indicated good internal consistency for both questionnaires and their respective subscales, as well as excellent test-retest reliability for the FCQ-T. In Study 2, we examined the validity of the instruments by comparing the effect of food deprivation versus food satiation on both questionnaires. As hypothesized, we found a greater effect on the state measure than the trait measure. In Study 3, we used confirmatory factor analysis to cross-validate the factor structure of both questionnaires with a new sample. Results supported the factor structure of both instruments. Overall, we suggest that cravings can be conceptualized as multidimensional motivational states. Our preliminary data support the use of the FCQ-S and FCQ-T with clinical and nonclinical populations.

Noncontingent reinforcement: effects of satiation versus choice responding

Recent research findings suggest that the initial reductive effects of noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) schedules on destructive behavior result from the establishing effects of an antecedent stimulus (i.e., the availability of “free” reinforcement) rather than extinction. A number of authors have suggested that these antecedent effects result primarily from reinforcer satiation, but an alternative hypothesis is that the individual attempts to access contingent reinforcement primarily when noncontingent reinforcement is unavailable, but chooses not to access contingent reinforcement when noncontingent reinforcement is available. If the satiation hypothesis is more accurate, then the reductive effects of NCR should increase over the course of a session, especially for denser schedules of NCR, and should occur during both NCR delivery and the NCR inter-reinforcement interval (NCR IRI). If the choice hypothesis is more accurate, then the reductive effects of NCR should be relatively constant over the course of a session for both denser and leaner schedules of NCR and should occur almost exclusively during the NCR interval (rather than the NCR IRI). To evaluate these hypotheses, we examined within-session trends of destructive behavior with denser and leaner schedules of NCR (without extinction), and also measured responding in the NCR interval separate from responding in the NCR IRI. Reductions in destructive behavior were mostly due to the participants choosing not to access contingent reinforcement when NCR was being delivered and only minimally due to reinforcer satiation.

Reduced sensitivity to the satiation effect of intestinal oleate in rats adapted to high-fat diet.

When rats are maintained on high-fat diets, digestive processes adapt to provide for more efficient digestion and absorption of this nutrient. Furthermore, rats fed high-fat diets tend to consume more calories and gain more weight than rats on a low-fat diet. We hypothesized that, in addition to adaptation of digestive processes, high-fat maintenance diets might result in reduction of sensitivity to the satiating effects of fat digestion products, which inhibit food intake by activating sensory fibers in the small intestine. To test this hypothesis we measured food intake after intestinal infusion of oleic acid or the oligosaccharide maltotriose in rats maintained on a low-fat diet or one of three high-fat diets. We found that rats fed high-fat diets exhibited diminished sensitivity to satiation by intestinal infusion of oleic acid. Sensitivity to the satiation effect of intestinal maltotriose infusion did not differ between groups maintained on the various diets. Reduced sensitivity to oleate infusion was specifically dependent on fat content of the diet and was not influenced by the dietary fiber or carbohydrate content. These results indicate that diets high in fat reduce the ability of fat to inhibit further food intake. Such changes in sensitivity to intestinal fats might contribute to the increased food intake and obesity that occur with high-fat diet regimens.

Differential Reinforcing and Satiating Effects of Intragastric Fat and Carbohydrate Infusions in Rats

Food intake and preferences are modulated by the postingestive satiating and reinforcing actions of nutrients. This experiment compared the feeding effects of isocaloric intragastric (i.g.) carbohydrate (maltodextrin) and fat (corn oil) infusions in food-restricted rats fed low-fat (12% fat kcal) or high-fat (48% fat kcal) diets. In Experiment 1, the rats were given one flavored saccharin solution (CS+C) paired with i.g. carbohydrate infusions, a second flavor (CS+F) paired with i.g. fat infusions, and a third flavor (CS−) paired with i.g. water infusions during 30-min one-bottle training sessions. In subsequent two-bottle tests, the rats preferred both CS+s to the CS− (68–83%) and the CS+C to the CS+F (68–70%). In Experiment 2, the feeding inhibitory effects of the nutrient infusions on an ongoing meal (satiation test) or a subsequent meal (satiety test) were compared. The intake of a palatable Polycose+saccharin solution was suppressed by a concurrent carbohydrate infusion but not by a fat infusion. Also, i.g. carbohydrate preloads suppressed the intake of a subsequent (30–180 min) mixed carbohydrate+fat test meal more than did i.g. fat preloads. The satiety effects of the fat preloads were more pronounced in rats fed the low-fat diet than in rats fed the high-fat maintenance diet. Diet composition did not reliably influence the preference conditioning and satiation effects of the nutrient infusions. These results confirm prior reports that fat is less satiating than carbohydrate, and further demonstrate that i.g. carbohydrate infusions condition a stronger flavor preference than fat infusions.

Complex Life Cycles in Andricus kollari (Hymenoptera, Cynipidae) and Their Impact on Associated Parasitoid and Inquiline Species

The cynipid gall wasp Andricus kollari was introduced to southwestern Britain in the middle of the nineteenth century and has since spread throughout the British Isles. A. kollari produces a sexual generation in spring on Turkey oak (Quercus cerris; an introduced tree in Britain) and a parthenogenetic generation in autumn on the native oak species Q. robur and Q. petraea. The galls of the two generations differ considerably in size ( 50% in the south to less than 5% in the north. Similarly, parasitoid abundance in the autumn galls decreased from an average of 6 individuals per gall in the south to I per gall in the north (in contrast to the spring galls, the autumn galls are sufficiently large to contain inquilines and can yield more than one individual per gall). Parasitism rates in the spring galls showed no geographical trend in 1994, but a clear decrease from south to north in 1995. This year, 1995, was a high-density year in the north, which suggests a satiation effect whereby the parasitoid species cannot follow the sudden increase in the host population.

Interaction of CCK and 8-OH-DPAT in the Satiation of Alcohol Intake

Administration of the neuropeptide cholecystokinin (CCK) is known to reduce food and alcohol intake and preference. The food satiation effect of CCK is reportedly dependent on serotonergic neurotransmission. Administration of 8-OH-DPAT, a serotonin 1A autoreceptor agonist, reduces the ability of CCK to inhibit feeding. We determined if CCK’s alcohol satiation effect also depends on activity of serotonergic neurons by administering 8-OH-DPAT (120–240 μg/kg) to 23-h water-deprived female and male rats, followed 1 h later by IP injection of CCK (4 μg/kg) and 30-min access to 5% w/v ethanol. 8-OH-DPAT significantly ( p < 0.05) interacted with CCK, and reduced CCK’s ethanol satiation effect when given IP but increased CCK’s effect when given SC. Female rats showed this interaction of 8-OH-DPAT with CCK at a higher dose than males when given IP, but females were more sensitive to SC 8-OH-DPAT’s ability to reduce ethanol intake. Results are consistent with previous findings of dose-, sex-, and route-dependent biphasic effects of 8-OH-DPAT on feeding and ethanol intake. A partial dependence of CCK’s alcohol satiation effect on serotonergic neurotransmission is revealed in this design.