Saponin Content Research Articles

Evaluating plant-based extracts as alternative therapeutics for diabetes: experimental and clinical insights

Interest in natural; plant-based alternatives to pharmaceutical anti diabetic medications has surged due to their negative side effects. This study assessed the hypoglycemic potential of aqueous extracts from lemon grass; lemon rinds; scent leaf; moringa leaf; and bitter leaf in treating diabetes. Alloxan monohydrate was used to cause diabetes in 35 out of 40 rats that were fasted for the entire night. Rats were split up into control and treatment groups; and the treatment groups were given intragastric intubation every day for two weeks to receive 2 milliliters of either individual or mixed plant extracts. On days four; seven; ten; and fourteen; blood glucose levels were assessed. Five diabetic individuals who ingested the extracts were also involved in the trial; their blood glucose levels were measured 30; 60; 90; and 120 minutes after ingestion. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 21 with one-way ANOVA and Duncan’s multiple range test at p ≤ 0.05. Toxicological analysis revealed that lemon grass extract had the highest tannin (0.62±0.03) and oxalate (3.66±0.32) content; moringa extract recorded the highest phytate level (1.60±0.02); while bitter leaf contained the highest saponin concentration (2.00±0.01). In diabetic rats; untreated groups showed persistently high glucose levels; whereas treated groups exhibited significant reductions. Among human subjects; lemon grass extract led to the highest glucose readings post-consumption; though still lower than baseline. The combined extract demonstrated the most significant glucose-lowering effect in both rats and humans; suggesting synergistic benefits. These findings support the potential of these plant extracts as effective; natural alternatives in diabetes management; though further investigation into their long-term safety is warranted.

Extraction of Yucca schidigera with deep eutectic solvents: bromatological, antioxidant, and antibacterial analysis

Infections caused by Escherichiacoli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Listeria monocytogenes are linked to contaminated food or water, while antibiotic resistance limits treatment options. Plant extracts are considered potential alternatives, and deep eutectic solvents and natural deep eutectic solvents (DES and NADES) offer a sustainable approach to metabolite extraction. Yucca schidigera powder was extracted using butanol (YSBE) and a NADES composed of choline chloride and lactic acid at a 1:1 molar ratio (YS-NADES). Bromatological composition, saponin content, total phenols and flavonoids, emulsifying and foaming capacities, antioxidant activity, and antibacterial properties were analyzed. YSBE contained 25.43% saponins, while YS-NADES had 0.093%. YSBE had higher protein (0.73%) and carbohydrate (77.5%) content than YS-NADES (0.03% and 0.95%, respectively). Antioxidant activity (DPPH, TEAC, ORAC) was significantly higher in YSBE than in YS-NADES. Phenol and flavonoid concentrations were also greater in YSBE. E. coli showed less sensitivity to both extracts than S. Typhimurium, S. aureus, and L. monocytogenes, while S. Typhimurium was less sensitive to YS-NADES. This study provides insights into the bromatological composition, antioxidant potential, and antibacterial properties of Y. schidigera extracted with NADES, highlighting its potential applications.

Insecticidal Effects of Paullinia pinnata (L.) Extracts on Callopistria sp. (Noctuidae: Fern Caterpillar)

The increasing herbivory of Nephrolepis species by Callopistria floridensis larvae (fern caterpillars) threatens the ecological integrity of wetland habitats in Bayelsa State, Nigeria. This study evaluated the insecticidal potential of Paullinia pinnata (L.) foliage and fruit extracts against C. floridensis, alongside an assessment of the plant’s phytochemical composition. Foliage and fruit samples of P. pinnata were collected, air-dried, and extracted using aqueous and ethanol solvents following standard protocols. Quantitative phytochemical screening revealed that ethanol-based foliage extract contained the highest concentrations of alkaloids (1.091 mg/L), tannins (2.242 mg/L), glycosides (1.970 mg/L), saponins (2.260 mg/L), and phenols (0.810 mg/L), while the aqueous foliage extract showed the highest flavonoid content (1.846 mg/L). Laboratory bioassays were conducted using 720 larvae of C. floridensis in a randomized complete block design (RCBD). Extracts were applied at five concentrations (2.5 - 20 mg/L), and larval mortality was observed at 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 hours post-treatment. Results showed a dose and time dependent increase in larval mortality (p ≤ 0.05), with ethanol foliage extracts achieving 100 % mortality by 10 hours at concentrations ≥5 mg/L. The aqueous extracts also showed significant activity, though delayed and less potent at lower concentrations. Ethanol extracts of both foliage and fruits consistently outperformed aqueous counterparts across all time intervals, while the fruit extracts were comparatively less effective, especially the aqueous type. The control treatments consistently recorded <3% mortality throughout the time frame. These findings confirm that P. pinnata contains potent bioactive compounds and offers strong potential as a botanical pesticide for managing Callopistria sp. infestations, contributing to sustainable pest control in tropical agroecosystems.

Seasonal Dynamic Changes in the Nutrient Elements and Antioxidant Activity of Ilex vomitoria Leaf

Ilex vomitoria Ait. is a star substitute for “tea” in recent years. At present, research on I. vomitoria mainly focuses on its breeding and cultivation, and there are few reports on the seasonal changes of important components such as leaf nutrients. This study focuses on the leaves of the topmost annual branches of I. vomitoria. Leaves were harvested at different stages, and the nutrient elements, antioxidant substances, antioxidant capacity, and aroma components in the leaves were measured and analyzed. The results showed that the content of mineral elements, soluble sugars, vitamin C, amino acids, flavonoids, polyphenols, saponins, caffeine, and catechins, as well as the DPPH free radical scavenging ability, ABTS cation free radical scavenging ability, and FRAP iron ion reduction ability in the leaves of I. vomitoria showed significant differences with seasonal changes. The mineral element content in spring leaves is relatively high. Flavonoids and polyphenols are the main antioxidant substances in the leaves of I. vomitoria, indicating that the antioxidant capacity of spring leaves is the strongest. The content of aroma components in the leaves of I. vomitoria in spring is the highest, with alcohols ranging from 54.93% to 66.08%, followed by ketones from 17.63% to 48.07%, and aldehydes from 21.27% to 38.51%. Overall, spring leaves are more suitable for harvesting, development, and utilization.

Assessment of Minerals, Phytochemicals, Proximate and Vitamins Content of Musa acuminata Treated with Different Ripening Agents

The use of artificial ripening agents in fruit handling has raised growing concerns due to potential health implications and nutrient degradation. Since musa acuminata (banana) is a climacteric fruit, it is usually harvested at pre-climacteric stage and for commercial purposes, artificially ripened. This study investigated the effect of calcium carbide (CaC2) and African bush mango on the ripening time, nutritional and phytochemical contents of Musa acuminata. The experiment was designed into 4 groups (A, B, C and D), made up of eight (8) banana fingers of approximately the same size. The banana samples were kept in clean polyethylene bags and treated with different ripening agents to induce the ripening process. Group A was allowed to ripen naturally (NRB), group B was treated with African bush mango (ABM) and groups C and D were treated with 5g and 15g of calcium carbide respectively. Results of the study for proximate analysis showed that NRB contained the highest crude protein (0.83 ± 0.02%), ash (0.60 ± 0.01%), and carbohydrate (18.98 ± 0.01%) levels, while moisture content was lowest (78.69 ± 0.01%). In contrast, 15 g CaC₂ treated bananas had the highest moisture (85.86 ± 0.73%) and lowest protein (0.30 ± 0.02%). ABM-ripened bananas showed moderate moisture (84.07 ± 0.08%) and protein (0.73 ± 0.00%) content, indicating less degradation than with CaC2 for the Phytochemical analysis, NRB had the highest concentrations of tannins (85.90 ± 0.14 µg/mg), flavonoids (152.50 ± 0.14 µg/mg), alkaloids (1.60 ± 0.14 µg/mg), and saponins (1.85 ± 0.07 µg/mg), while 15 g CaC₂ treatment resulted in the lowest levels of these compounds. Vitamin analysis showed a marked decline in CaC2 treated bananas, with vitamin C dropping from 15.30 ± 0.42 mg/100g in NRB to 12.10 ± 0.14 mg/100g in 15 g CaC₂ treated samples. ABM samples retained moderate levels (14.80 ± 0.00 mg/100g), suggesting better nutrient preservation. Mineral assessment revealed NRB had the highest phosphorus (19.00 ± 0.28 mg/100g) and magnesium (9.40 ± 0.07 mg/100g), whereas calcium peaked in 15 g CaC₂ treated samples (17.67 ± 0.47 mg/100g), potentially due to residue accumulation. These results indicate that artificial ripening using calcium carbide significantly compromises the nutritional quality of bananas. African bush mango, however, offers a more biologically compatible alternative, retaining better nutritional and phytochemical integrity.

Fermentation of Sainfoin Seed Flour with Saccharomyces boulardii: Effects on Total Dietary Fiber, Anti-Nutrients, Antimicrobial Activity, and Bioaccessibility of Bioactive Compounds

This study investigates the effects of fermentation on sainfoin seed flour using Saccharomyces boulardii for total dietary fiber (TDF) content, anti-nutritional profiles (including phytates, tannins, saponins, and trypsin inhibitors), and bioactive compounds. It also focused on assessing the in vitro availability of phenolic compounds, antioxidant potential, and anti-nutrient compounds after gastrointestinal digestion. Four treatment groups were designed: a non-fermented control group, and flour samples fermented with S. boulardii CNCM I-745 for 24, 48, and 72 h. All fermentations were carried out at 30 °C. The effects of fermentation and the analysis results were statistically evaluated at the significance level of p < 0.05, and significant differences were detected. Fermentation significantly increased soluble dietary fiber (from 3.32% to 4.43%) and reduced anti-nutritional factors, including phytates (by 18%), tannin (by 19%), and trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) (by 79%). However, saponin content increased by 21% after 72 h of fermentation. Tannin levels of non-fermented and fermented sainfoin flour decreased dramatically after in vitro digestion. Moreover, it was concluded that the bioaccessibility of phytic acid significantly increased through fermentation, while that of tannins declined. Antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 improved after fermentation, while the antioxidant capacity was enhanced post-digestion. In addition, the highest phenolic content (612 mg GAE/100 g) and antioxidant capacity (1745 mg TE/100 g by CUPRAC assay and 1127 mg TE/100 g by DPPH assay) were determined in fermented sainfoin seed flour at 72 h after gastrointestinal digestion.

Separation of Bioactive Compounds from Pfaffia glomerata: Drying, Green Extraction, and Physicochemical Properties

Leaves (LV), stems (STs), and inflorescences (IFs) of Pfaffia glomerata are usually discarded despite containing various bioactive compounds, especially β-ecdysone saponin. The objective was to optimize by desirability (DI) the ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) of bioactive compounds (total phenolics (TPCs), antioxidant activity (AA), and total saponins) from the aerial parts (LV, ST, and IF) of P. glomerata. Ideal drying conditions were determined and the drying kinetics were evaluated. LV, STs, and IFs were dried and extracted (0.06 g/mL 80% EtOH) in a USS (6 cm × 12 mm, pulse 3/6 s) by Central Composite Design (CCD), varying sonication power (140–560 W) and time (11–139 min), with TPC, AA by DPPH, and total saponin content as responses. The DI indicated that the higher TPC, AA, and saponin levels were obtained at 136.5 min and 137.87 W (STs), and 138.6 min and 562.32 W (LV and IFs). IF extracts contained higher saponin, TPCs, and AA. Higher β-ecdysone levels (3.90 mg g−1) were present in the leaves. Several phenolics were detected in area parts of P. glomerata, the most abundant being p-coumaric acid (LV) and nicotinic acid (STs and IFs). These compounds provide potential health benefits. Phytol was found in all extracts. Extracts by UAE from leaves have antibacterial potential, with demonstrated inhibitory effects against S. aureus, E. coli, L. monocytogenes, S. Typhi, and P. aeruginosa, and presented bactericidal effects against E. coli, L. monocytogenes, and S. Typhi. Aerial parts of P. glomerata can be used to obtain extracts by UAE rich in bioactive compounds, providing complete utilization of the plant and sustainability to cultivation. This work represents the first report on the application of ecofriendly UAE techniques to extract bioactive compounds from the aerial parts of Brazilian ginseng.

The Composition of Essential Oils and the Content of Saponins in Different Parts of Gilia capitata Sims

Bluehead gilia or bluefield gilia (Gilia capitata Sims, Polemoniaceae) is an annual herbaceous plant widely distributed in the western regions of North America but cultivated as an ornamental flower in various regions to support pollinators. The comprehensive chemical composition of this plant has not been previously reported. Essential oils (EOs) were obtained by hydrodistillation from different parts of the gilia plants. The yield of EOs ranged from 0.42 to 1.97 mL/kg, with the largest yields being obtained from the seeds; smaller yields obtained from the flowers, fruits, and leaves; and the lowest quantity obtained from the stems, roots, and shells. Using the GC-MS method, we identified 116 compounds. Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone was dominant in most parts of the G. capitata. The EO of flowers was dominated by hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (19.1%), fruits by hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (18.2%), seeds by hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (15.2%), fruit by (+)-epi-bicyclosesquiphellandrene (15.4%), leaves by phytol (23.3%), stems by isomanool (8.3%), and roots by (-)-myrtenol (25.7%). Triterpenoid saponins were identified, and 21 compounds were quantified (by HPLC). Saponin levels were high in aerial parts (excluding stems) and the lowest in plant roots. Based on the contents of EO and saponins, the aerial parts of G. capitata may have pharmaceutical properties, but saponins might be the main value of G. capitata.

Production of an extract rich in alpha-tomatine from green tomatoes by subcritical water

Green tomatoes, a by-product of agro-food industry, are rich in the glycoalkaloid alpha-tomatine. This compound presents health benefits including anti-inflammatory and fungicide properties. Subcritical water extraction (SWE), a green and sustainable process, was used to obtain a tomatine-rich extract from fresh or frozen tomatoes. SWE extracted ca 200 mg tomatine/100 g tomato, an amount higher than conventional methods, at a temperature of 190°C and a residence time of 15 min. Green tomatoes' SWE extracts were characterized in terms of their composition and antioxidant activity. The phenolic content obtained was approximately 200 mg of gallic acid equivalents/100 g tomatoes, and the saponin content was 1000 mg of tomatine equivalents/100 g tomatoes. Total carbohydrate content was different between fresh and frozen tomatoes, 1812 mg of D(+)- glucose equivalents/100 g tomatoes versus 1269 mg/100 g, respectively. In terms of antioxidant activity, a value around 100 mg of Trolox equivalents/100 g of tomatoes was obtained in the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl assay, whereas a value of 558 mg of Trolox equivalents/100 mg fresh tomatoes versus 452 mg of Trolox equivalents/100 g frozen tomatoes was obtained by cupric ion reducing antioxidant capacity assay. SWE extraction proved to be a valuable method to extract glycoalkaloids from green tomatoes. The obtained extracts have the potential to be used as ingredients and actives in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries.

Foaming and emulsifying properties of aquafaba powders as affected by saponin and amino acid content

Foaming and emulsifying properties of aquafaba powders as affected by saponin and amino acid content

Comparison of Antioxidant Activities of Dendropanax morbifera Léveille Extracts According to Harvest Area.

Dendropanax morbifera Léveille is a medicinal plant native to East Asia with its diverse therapeutic potentials. In particular, the antioxidant effect of this plant is well known, but there has been little research on the antioxidant effect according to different habitats or ages. In this study, we evaluated the proximate composition, mineral, saponin, rutin, total phenolic and flavonoid contents, and antioxidant activities of leaf extracts of D. morbifera plants cultivated from two different regions (New Zealand and Jeju Island, Korea) and of the same age (2-year-old plants). The assessment of proximate composition and total phenolic and flavonoid contents revealed significant variations in these parameters dependent on the cultivation region and age. The highest total phenol and total flavonoid contents were observed in D. morbifera from Jeju Island. In addition, the antioxidant activities of leaf extracts of D. morbifera from different cultivation regions and ages were assessed in terms of 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl and 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)free radical scavenging, total antioxidant capacity, and superoxide dismutase activity. The extract of D. morbifera from Jeju Island showed the highest antioxidant activity among the samples tested. These findings clearly indicate that both the cultivation region and plant age affect the phytochemical content and antioxidant activity of D. morbifera. Therefore, extracts of D. morbifera obtained from optimal harvest regions and ages could serve as promising natural antioxidant candidates with potential health benefits.

Nutritional evaluation of the leaves of &lt;i&gt;Samanea saman&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;Terminalia catappa&lt;/i&gt;, and &lt;i&gt;Blighia sapida&lt;/i&gt; as agroforestry fodder for sustainable ruminant production in Ghana

The scarcity of feed during dry seasons challenges ruminant productivity, requiring exploration of underutilised fodder species. This study evaluates the nutritional value and fermentative characteristics of Samanea saman, Terminalia catappa, and Blighia sapida leaves, focusing on their proximate compositions, fibre fractions, mineral content, bioactive compounds, in vitro fermentation characteristics, and potential for reducing methane gas emissions. Nutritionally, S. saman had the highest (p &lt; 0.05) dry matter content (96.60%) and crude protein (22.98%) compared to B. sapida (15.98%) and T. catappa (22.46%). Blighia sapida had the highest (p &lt; 0.05) crude fibre (46.21%) and ash content (8.69%), while T. catappa had the highest (p &lt; 0.05) nitrogen-free extract (46.57%) and metabolizable energy (221.49 MJ/g). In terms of minerals, S. saman had the highest (p &lt; 0.05) phosphorus (0.72%), potassium (1.83%), and iron (220.35 mg/kg), while B. sapida had the highest (p &lt; 0.05) calcium (1.62%) and magnesium (0.84%), and T. catappa had the highest (p &lt; 0.05) copper (90.17 mg/kg). For bioactive compounds, T. catappa had the highest (p &lt; 0.05) tannin, phytate, and oxalate levels, while B. sapida had the highest (p &lt; 0.05) saponin content. At 96 hours of in vitro ruminal incubation, T. catappa exhibited the highest (p &lt; 0.05) total gas production (15.00 ml/200g DM), followed by B. sapida (14.17 ml/200g DM) and S. saman (7.58 ml/200g DM). Blighia sapida and Terminalia catappa had higher insoluble fractions (12.39 -13.07 mL), while S. saman and T. catappa showed faster fermentation rates (0.10 - 0.11 mL/h). Terminalia catappa also produced the highest (p &lt; 0.05) levels of lactic acid (13.02 mmol/100g), total volatile fatty acids (148.43 mmol/100g), butyric acid (9.54 mmol/100g), propionic acid (9.99 mmol/100g), methane gas (59.33%), and short-chain fatty acids (0.22 mol/100g). Samanea saman followed with moderate levels of volatile fatty acids and methane (54.59%), while B. sapida had the lowest values for lactic acid (6.45 mmol/100g), total volatile acids (73.54 mmol/100g), and methane gas (51.44%) (p &lt; 0.05). However, B. sapida recorded the highest (p &lt; 0.05) acetic acid (10.47 mmol/100g) and valeric acid (9.49 mmol/100g) levels, with the highest ruminal pH (7.49) among the fodder species. In conclusion, all the fodder plant species have demonstrated distinct nutritional and fermentative benefits that can enhance ruminant productivity during dry seasons. Further research should focus on their optimal inclusion rates and long-term impacts on ruminant health and productivity.

Hepatoprotector Edible Flower in Indonesia: A Review

Hepatotoxicity is an agent that causes damage to human liver function, and every year, cases of liver damage are increasing. Agents that cause liver damage, such as drugs (Paracetamol), chemicals, Carbon Tetrachloride (CCL4), cause liver damage, which is characterized by an increase in the liver enzymes Serum Glutamic Oxaloacetic Transaminase (SGOT) and Serum Glutamic Pyruvic Transaminase (SGPT). Giving natural ingredients such as edible flower extracts (hepatoprotectors) can reduce SGOT and SGPT levels in liver damage (Hepatoxicity). Indonesia is a country rich in biodiversity, including edible flowers. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to analyze edible flowers that grow in Indonesia and have hepatoprotective activity. This research method is based on a Google Scholar search for the last 5 years (2024-2020) with a keyword search for herbal plants that grow in Indonesia, then selected edible flowers, and a search for edible flowers, then selected edible flowers that act as hepatoprotective. From the search results, edible flowers that act as hepatoprotectors were obtained, namely, Rosella Flower (Hibiscus sabdariffa), Pagoda Flower (Clerodendrum paniculatum L.), Water Hyacinth Flower (Eichhornia crassipes), French Marigold Flower (Tagetes Patula) and Butterfly Pea Flower (Clitoria ternatea), which grow abundantly in Indonesia. Based on the content of active edible compounds, namely flavonoids, anthocyanins, tannins, alkaloids, saponins, terpenoids, phenolic acids and carotenoids, with flavonoids being the most dominant found in all edible flowers. And among the 5 edible flowers as hepatoprotective, only 2 are the most familiar in Indonesia, namely Rosella Flower (Hibiscus sabdariffa) and Butterfly Pea Flower (Clitoria ternatea), so it can be concluded that the most familiar hepatoprotective edible flowers in Indonesia are Rosella Flower (Hibiscus sabdariffa) and Butterfly Pea Flower (Clitoria ternatea).

Ganoderma Neo-Japonicum Imazeki in Bu Gia Map National Park: Studies on Nutritional Compositions, Active Biological Compounds, and Antioxidant Properties

Ganoderma neo-japonicum Imazeki, 1939 is a special mushroom species growing on tropical bamboo bushes and has been used in folk medicine to prevent and treat many diseases. Our investigation provided valuable scientific evidence about nutritional composition, active biological compounds, and antioxidant properties, helping to evaluate this mushroom's medicinal value properly and contributing to the conservation and propagation of precious mushroom species in Bu Gia Map National Park. G. neo-japonicum contains a high total polysaccharide of 72.4 %, carbohydrate of 74 g/100 g, and high mineral contents like Na, Ca, and Mg. Additionally, the ethanol extract of G. neo-japonicum exhibits a substantial total polyphenol content, quantified at 284.91 mg GAE/mg DW, along with a total flavonoid content of 73.12 mg CAE/g DW and a total saponin content of 230.23 mg OAE/g DW. Consequently, this extract demonstrates potent antioxidant properties, evidenced by an IC50 value of 11.70 µg/mL in the DPPH assay and an EC50 value of 124.68 µg/mL in the FRAP assay. Interestingly, the presence of adenosine with a concentration of 104 mg/kg plays a significant role in using this mushroom in food and medicine because this is a bioactive compound found in Cordyceps mushrooms and has a variety of bioactivity such as possible cardioprotective and therapeutic agents for chronic heart failure.

Potential of Biosurfactant Extracted from Averrhoa bilimbi Leaves Using the Maceration Method

The utilization of natural resources as raw materials for biosurfactants is increasingly urgent to reduce dependence on synthetic surfactants that have the potential to pollute the environment. One potential natural source is Averrhoa bilimbi leaves, which contain chemical compounds such as saponins. This compound acts as a natural biosurfactant that is not only effective but also environmentally friendly, so it can be a solution in overcoming the negative impact of synthetic surfactant use. This study aims to determine the optimal level of saponin as a biosurfactant from starfruit wuluh (Averrhoa bilimbi) by varying the ratio of starfruit leaf extraction and solvent, as well as examining the height and stability of foam produced by saponin from starfruit wuluh leaves. In addition, this study evaluated the effect of pH on the performance of saponin from star fruit as a biosurfactant. The method used was maceration extraction using ethanol solvent. Saponin testing was carried out by Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) test to determine the saponin content of each sample. The test results showed that the highest saponin content was found in the starfruit leaf extraction: solvent ratio variation of 1:12, namely 6.12%, while the best foam height and foam stability test results were found in the starfruit leaf extraction: solvent ratio variation of 1:10, where no foam disappeared for 15 minutes. The pH test showed that pH 7 is considered safe for the environment. Thus, saponin extract from belimbing wuluh leaves has the potential to be an effective and sustainable biosurfactant, which can be a more environmentally friendly alternative to synthetic chemical-based surfactants.

Transcriptomics and metabolomics profiling of Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis with different growth years

Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis is a widely cultivated rhizomatous perennial woody plant known for producing highly valued steroidal saponins. Steroidal saponins serve as the primary active components and exhibit a variety of pharmacological effects. Their production is closely correlated with the growth environment and developmental stages of P. polyphylla. However, the medicinal value of P. polyphylla cultivated for varying durations remains unclear. In this study, we collected samples of P. polyphylla aged 3 to 8 years for metabolome and transcriptome sequencing analysis. The total saponin content was found to be significantly higher in 8-year-old P. polyphylla compared to younger plants. A total of 1,510 metabolites and 270.65 Gb of clean data were identified from these samples. This study provides insights into the medicinal values of P. polyphylla at different growth stages and elucidates the metabolic pathways for specific steroidal saponins.

Effects of Quinoa Secondary Metabolites on In Vitro Fermentation and Gas Production.

Livestock methane emissions are a significant source of greenhouse gases. The aim of this study was to investigate the secondary metabolites of different strains of silage quinoa and their impact on methane emissions from livestock farming. In this study, we evaluated the chemical composition, fermentation quality, secondary metabolite content, and in vitro gas production of eight quinoa lines, 093, 137, 231, 238, 565, 666, 770, and 811, grown in saline and alkaline areas of the Yellow River Delta. The results showed that crude protein, EE, and crude ash content ranged from 8.84% to 10.69%, 1.98% to 2.38%, and 17.00% to 23.14%, respectively. The acidic and neutral detergent fiber content of these eight quinoa varieties ranged from 49.31% to 61.91% and 33.29% to 37.31%, respectively. Line 093 had the highest total saponin content, while Line 231 exhibited the highest flavonoid content. Methane yield was significantly and negatively correlated with tannin, saponin, and flavonoid content, whereas carbon dioxide yield showed a positive correlation with saponin and flavonoid content. Among all lines, 770 and 811 demonstrated the lowest methane production, indicating strong in vitro inhibition of methanogenesis. These findings suggest that feeding quinoa silage to ruminants has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Mechanism and Regulation of Tea Saponin Extraction from C. oleifera Seed Meal in Subcritical Water.

Tea saponins are excellent natural surfactants, and previous studies on their extraction from C. oleifera seed meals in subcritical water have mainly focused on the optimization of external extraction conditions. In order to achieve the efficient extraction of tea saponins in subcritical water, this study explores the influence of the composition-internal factors on the extraction rate of tea saponins. In this study, the composition of three C. oleifera seed meals purchased from Hubei, Hunan and Guizhou province and extraction rates of tea saponins, dissolution rates of reducing sugars and proteins from these C. oleifera seed meals were compared, and the results showed that reducing sugars and proteins were intrinsic components affecting extraction rates of tea saponins in subcritical water. The simulation system involving tea saponins, whey protein isolate (WPI), and glucose in subcritical water showed that WPI reduced the content of tea saponins through the Maillard reaction, and glucose inhibited the participation of tea saponins in the Maillard reaction. The above mechanism was verified using alkaline protease, which changed the content of reducing sugars and proteins in the C. oleifera seed meal purchased from Hubei province, and provided guidance for achieving the efficient extraction of tea saponins.

Effects of thermo-mechanical and chemical processes on the nutritional and functional quality of Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis) flour

The objective of this study was to subject Sacha inchi (TA) kernels to mechanical (TST), thermo- mechanical (TCT), and chemical (TMH) processes with the aim of obtaining cakes with a high protein content. These were then compared with commercial brands (TP and HC). Proximate analysis, anti-radical capacity (determined using DPPH and ABTS assays), reducing capacity (evaluated using the FRAP assay), and antinutritional compounds (tannins, phytates, and saponins) were quantified. The TCT and TP treatments exhibited relatively low contents of tannins (3.78 ± 0.01 and 2.55 ± 0.02 mg/100 g sample), phytates (3.073 ± 0.004 and 3.214 ± 0.001 mg/100 g sample), and saponins (0.496 ± 0.005 and 0.437 ± 0.002 mg/100 g sample) in comparison to the treatments (TST and HC). Accordingly, TCT, TP, and TMH were selected for the determination of rheological properties and in vitro protein digestibility, as well as the evaluation of interfacial potential at varying pH (4, 5, 7, 9) and temperatures (25 °C, 40 °C, 55 °C). The thermo-mechanical and chemical treatments result in alterations to the configuration of the proteins, which are characterized by the formation of specific secondary structures, including β-sheets, random coils, α-helices, and β-turns. These structural changes impact the interfacial potential of the proteins, influencing the particle size and the zeta potential. The results indicated that the structural changes caused by the treatments could optimize the use of Sacha inchi protein cakes in the food industry, favoring their functionality and use in the development of new products.

A Phytochemical Evaluation of Sierra Leonean Cassia siamea: A Source of Bioactive Compounds

This study investigates the phytochemical profile of the leaves and stem bark of Cassia siamea, a leguminous plant with recognized ethnomedicinal importance, collected from tropical Sierra Leone. The global health crisis posed by antibiotic resistance and the increased interest in natural product-based therapeutics have spurred the re-evaluation of traditional medicinal plants as reservoirs of novel bioactive compounds. In this context, Cassia siamea, widely used in African and Asian traditional medicine, was selected for in-depth phytochemical assessment. The plant materials were extracted using both methanol and aqueous solvents through cold maceration, and the resulting crude extracts were subjected to qualitative phytochemical screening following standard procedures. The investigation revealed the presence of several classes of secondary metabolites, including flavonoids, glycosides, tannins, steroids, saponins, and phenolic compounds. Notably, phenols were exclusive to the leaf extract, while saponins and glycosides were more abundant in the stem bark. Neither alkaloids nor anthraquinones were detected in either plant part, indicating potential chemotypic differences from other regional variants. These findings underscore the importance of geographic influence on phytochemical composition, a factor often overlooked in cross-regional herbal pharmacognosy. The presence of flavonoids and tannins in both plant parts suggests strong antioxidant and antimicrobial potential, aligning with the traditional use of Cassia siamea for infections, inflammation, and gastrointestinal disorders. Furthermore, the high concentration of glycosides and saponins in the stem bark suggests additional therapeutic applications, particularly as expectorants, immune boosters, and anti-inflammatory agents. These results validate the plant’s long-standing role in traditional medicine and highlight its relevance in contemporary drug discovery efforts. This study not only contributes to the growing body of literature on African medicinal flora but also provides foundational data for future pharmacological and biochemical studies. The confirmation of bioactive compounds supports the ethnobotanical applications of Cassia siamea and opens pathways for further isolation, structural characterization, and pharmacodynamic evaluation of its constituents. In the broader context of global health, particularly in regions where access to modern pharmaceuticals is limited, the development of safe and effective phytotherapeutics from Cassia siamea may represent a sustainable solution to address antibiotic resistance and support primary healthcare systems.