Sandalwood (Santalum album L.), a highly valued hemi-parasitic tree, depends on host plants for nutrient acquisition, particularly under abiotic stress. However, the influence of host species on sandalwood's free amino acid (FAA) profiles under water deficit stress remains poorly understood. This study investigated how 11 host species modulate FAA composition in sandalwood roots during water deficit stress, aiming to identify host-specific metabolic adaptations that enhance stress resilience. LC-MS/MS analysis revealed significant host-dependent variations in FAA profiles. Pongamia pinnata association led to the highest accumulation of aspartic acid (7.28µg g- 1 FW), glutamic acid (13.87µg g- 1 FW), and lysine (67.11µg g- 1 FW), while Sesbania grandiflora resulted in minimal arginine (0.55µg g- 1 FW). Acacia nilotica and Punica granatum enhanced physiological resilience, with higher chlorophyll content (5.57µg mg- 1 FW), relative water content (62.8%), and proline levels (18.38µg g- 1 FW). Principal component analysis (69.7% variance explained) highlighted arginine, lysine, and histidine as key contributors to metabolic shifts under stress. Hierarchical clustering further confirmed host-specific FAA patterns, with Pongamia pinnata and nitrogen-fixing hosts promoting stress-responsive amino acids. Host selection strongly influences sandalwood's drought tolerance. Pongamia pinnata, Dalbergia sissoo, and Punica granatum enhance nitrogen metabolism, amino acid accumulation, and physiological traits under stress. These findings offer a practical, science-based strategy for improving sandalwood resilience in semi-arid regions through climate-smart host selection in agroforestry systems.

Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) is an endemic species of ENT – Indonesia, currently listed as a vulnerable species on the IUCN Red List. The study seeks to understand the status of sandalwood among agroforestry farmers, on how the ecosystem balance of the sandalwood trade has been maintained for centuries under traditional management, and how current institutional arrangements or policies seem to be leading to unsustainable sandalwood production and trade. Primary data were collected through a survey of eight villages in the South Central Timor district, West Timor, purposively selected based on the distribution of the sandalwood ecosystem; secondary data and information were obtained from manuscripts and open-access sources. The research showed that the current sandalwood trees are mostly found in Mamar, a traditional agroforestry system, with dominant respondents (32%) maintaining populations of fewer than 15 trees, and only 2% respondents own more than 50 trees; however, accounted 80% respondents were willing to plant sandalwood. The paper highlighted that traditional sandalwood management practices during the early sandalwood trade contributed to the sustainable, environmentally sound nature of the sandalwood natural production system. Conversely, induced sandalwood management practices, in general, lead to overexploitation and social distrust, creating unsustainable sandalwood production. The paper suggested that sandalwood cultivation should focus on private land in Mamar, and that regulations and technical standards for sandalwood production and trade should be designed to increase participation and promote sustainable, environmentally friendly dryland management. Sandalwood trees should receive special consideration and be valued more in biodiversity and carbon credit schemes to attract more upland farmers to plant and conserve them.

Santalum album L. of Santalaceae family is one of the most valuable plant species, native to Southern India. The crop is valued for its heartwood oil because of its sweet, fragrant aroma and fixative property. On the other hand, the seeds are underutilised and not much explored. The present study aims at profiling the fatty acid composition and evaluation of anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and Tyrosinase inhibitory activities. Sandal seeds reported 23% (v/w) of fixed oil with n-hexane as an extraction medium. The major fatty acids in sandal seed oil are reported as palmitic acid (2.028%), oleic acid (9.87%) and ximenynic acid (79.58%). ximenynic acid isolated by crystallisation method was validated through Gas chromatography and NMR analysis. The sandal seed oil and ximenynic acid displayed promising anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and Tyrosinase inhibitory activity. Sandal seeds can thus be utilised as the natural and sustainable source for cosmeceutical applications.

Introduction: Ensuring the identity, quality, safety, and reproducibility, standardizing a drug hasbecome a cornerstone of the drug in the modern era. When treating illnesses in the Supraclavicular(Urdhwajatrugata) region, a special type of medicated fume inhalation therapy (Dhoomanasya) usingmedicated fume sticks (Dhoomavarti) is mentioned in Ayurveda. The HPTLC fingerprinting techniqueis a commonly used approach for herbal formulation quality monitoring and hence can be used to monitorthe quality of the medicated fume stick.Aim: To evaluate the pharmaceutical and analytical profile of Erandamooladi fume stick (Dhoomavarti)through organoleptic evaluation, physicochemical parameters, and HPTLC fingerprinting.Materials and Methods: The formulation was prepared in a single batch using authenticated raw drugs:Erandamoola (Ricinus communis), Jatamansi (Nardostachys jatamansi), Guggulu (Commiphora mukul),Aguru (Aquilaria agallocha), and Chandana (Santalum album). Organoleptic and physicochemicalparameters like loss on drying, ash value, extractive values, carbon content, and volatile oil content andsome specific phytochemical tests were performed as per standard guidelines. HPTLC fingerprintingwas performed using methanol extract of the formulation and the developed plate was observed underUV light.Results: The formulation was brown in colour, hard in consistency, and had a camphor-like odour. Losson drying was 5.8%, total ash value was 5%, and acid insoluble ash was found to be 2.3%. Water-solubleextract was 14% and alcohol-soluble extractive was 18%. Carbon content was 0.3% per varti and volatileoil content was 0.4%. HPTLC profile showed multiple bands under UV light, indicating the presence ofdiverse phytoconstituents.Conclusion: These analytical findings provides baseline standardization parameters and establishes theHPTLC fingerprint of this herbal formulation. These findings may be useful for future quality control,reproducibility, and research validation.

ABSTRACT Microbial pathogenesis, and oxidative stress are among the prominent contributors to disease that resulted in mortality as well as high burden on global economy. Synthetic medicines appear effective, but the evolution of resistant strains and side effects has worsened the condition. In last few decades, herbal formulations have gained attention due to their consumer‐friendly nature and lesser side effects. The current research examined Santalum album L. aqueous extract for its phytochemical composition and compared its bioactivities with that of AuNPs, ZnNPs, and CuNPs. GC‐MS and LC‐MS/MS identified furo‐pyridines, phthalates, and benzene derivatives as major compounds. Both extract as well as composite nanoparticles (NPs) have good antibacterial properties against clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis , and Pseudomonas fluorescens . The prepared NPs have also shown commendable rise in antioxidant potential in comparison to crude extract. Among crude extract, AuNPs, CuNPs, and ZnNPs, AuNPs has shown excellent cytotoxicity and inhibitory effect on A375 melanoma and HCT‐116 cells, and hence cell viability decreased with increase in dosage. The IC50 of AuNPs was 63.48 ± 0.33 for HCT‐116 and 2.86 ± 0.61 for A375 cells. Overall assessment has identified S. album L. as a strong therapeutic candidate, but commercial formulation needs detailed pharmacokinetic analysis.

Unveiling intraspecific variation in growth, heartwood pigmentation, and oil chemistry of East Indian sandalwood: case study

A significant proportion of the global population relies on traditional medicine systems for primary health care, with Jawar (fever or pyrexia) being one of the most addressed conditions in such practice. In Ayurveda, Jwara is considered a Rasa Pradoshaja Vyadhi affecting both Sharira and Manas, primarily involving Agni Dushti, Ama accumulation, and Tridosha vitiation. Among the herb groupings (Ganas) mentioned in Sushruta Samhita, Patoladi Gana is a well-established cluster of Seven herbs - Patola (Trichosanthes dioica), Sweta Chandana (Santalum album), Rakta Chandan (Pterocarpus santalinus), Murva (Marsdenia tenacissima), Guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia), Patha (Cissampelos pareira), Katuki (Picrorhiza kurroa), - formulated specifically for the treatment of Jwara. These herbs, characterized by their Tikta Rasa act synergistically to pacify aggravated Pitta, detoxify Ama, kindle Agni, and purify Rakta. Pharmacologically, Patoladi Gana exhibits a wide spectrum of actions including antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant effects. Modern studies have validated the presence of bioactive compounds such as kutkin, berberine, santalol, and flavanoids, which act via mechanisms like cytokine inhibition, prostaglandin suppression, and liver enzyme regulation. Patoladi Gana is thus a scientifically and traditionally validated herbal formulation for the safe and effective management of fever. It not only reduces body temperature but also addresses its root causes - poor digestion, liver dysfunction, and immune imbalance. This review highlights its therapeutic potential, classical relevance, pharmacodynamics, and clinical applicability in febrile disorders.

Abstract L-Proline (L-Pro) and trans-4-hydroxy-L-proline (t-4-HPL) are major components of collagen and plant cell wall proteins. During their breakdown, free L-Pro and t-4-HPL are produced abundantly and play unique biological roles through complex metabolisms including isomerization. Therefore, it is essential to quantify all the six stereoisomers of proline and 4-hydroxyproline. Here, analytes were first labelled with 12C-dabsyl group, which has strong red colour and stability under light. Secondly, each of the 13C6-dabsyl stereoisomers were added to 12C-dabsylated samples as internal standards before cleanup. Finally, the molar ratio of 12C- and 13C6-dabsyl analytes was determined as the intensity ratio of doublet molecular ions with m/z difference of six in mass spectra, which were obtained by subjecting the cleaned sample to capillary chromatography-mass spectrometry. The total amounts of proline, t-4-HP and cis-4-hydroxyproline were determined using the standard addition method. Linear calibration curves (R2 > 0.99) were obtained in the range of 10–1000 pmol. To determine the molar ratio of D- and L-enantiomers, enantiopure dabsyl analyte fraction was obtained using reverse-phase and chiral chromatography. Mouse serum contained 0.20 μmol/L trans-4-hydroxy-D-proline. Achatina fulica haemolymph contained 0.070 μmol/L D-proline. The Santalum album wood powder contained all the 6 stereoisomers and unexpectedly the D-enantiomer was dominant for trans-4-hydroxyproline.

Indian sandalwood (Santalum album L.) is a xylem-tapping hemiparasitic tree that relies on host plants for water and mineral nutrients. Although post-haustorial nutrient transfer has been well documented, the initial signaling associated with host recognition and systemic responses are still not well understood. The current study used the hydroponic split root system to spatially segregate the root systems of three host species (Mulberry, Casuarina, and Alternanthera) and tested whether exposure to sandalwood would induce systemic signalling in physically separated root systems. Under control conditions, where the roots of the hosts were evenly distributed in two compartments without sandalwood, the metabolic profiles demonstrated the stable and homogeneous pattern of exudation. 37 metabolites were found to be common in the exudates of the roots of Mulberry, while 39 metabolites were found to be common in the exudates of Casuarina and Alternanthera. However, when sandalwood was placed in the left compartments, significant reprogramming of the metabolic profile was observed. When the roots of Mulberry were placed in the presence of sandalwood, the number of common metabolites was found to have reduced drastically to only 5, while unique metabolites were found in the non-exposed and exposed roots. Casuarina showed reduced numbers of common metabolites to 9, while 15 unique metabolites were found in the non-exposed roots. Alternanthera showed similar responses. This indicate the systemic signalling from exposed roots to non-exposed roots system and strong metabolic reprogramming. KEGG annotation supported the presence of L-lysine (C00047) in the root exudates of Casuarina, which was involved in degradation (map00310), amino acid biosynthesis (map01230), and secondary metabolisms, including alkaloid biosynthesis (map01064). The present study show that sandalwood induces a rapid, long-distance metabolic shift in the host root systems regardless of physical exposure, suggesting the perception of chemical sandalwood cues and the activation of root to root signalling.

Santalum album Linn. (sandalwood) is a commercially important species due to the essential oils derived from its heartwood. This species has been currently threatened by overharvesting and habitat fragmentation. Therefore, this study aims to assess genetic diversity and population structure of seven Indonesian sandalwood populations using eight nuclear simple sequence repeat (nSSR) markers. The samples comprised 202 individuals from one ex-situ conservation population (artificially established) in Gunungkidul (GK), Java, four natural populations in East Nusa Tenggara (ENT) from three islands: Flores (ED), Sumba (SB), and Timor (TU, TS), along with one rehabilitation site (FT) and one seed production area (SPA, analogous to a seed orchard) on Timor Island. The results showed moderate genetic diversity among the populations. Expected heterozygosity (He) and observed heterozygosity (Ho) ranged from 0.174 to 0.522 and 0.188 to 0.5171, respectively, with mean values of 0.331 and 0.303. The Ende (ED) population showed the highest allelic richness (AR [28] = 4.01), while GK had the lowest (2.30). Significant inbreeding coefficients (FIS) were detected in all ENT populations except ED, alongside a nonsignificant value in GK. Bayesian analysis determined the optimal genetic cluster number to be K = 5, separating the populations into ED, SB, GK, and two clusters within the Timor Island populations (TU and a group comprising TS, FT, and SPA). Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) confirmed the genetic distinction of the GK ex-situ population from the ENT groups. Furthermore, the Analysis of Molecular Variance (AMOVA) revealed that 8% of the total genetic variation occurred among regions, while 3% was found among populations within regions. The absence of significant recent population bottlenecks across all populations suggests demographic resilience, potentially supported by rehabilitation programs. The critically low genetic diversity of the GK population underscores the necessity for urgent, targeted conservation strategies, such as assisted gene flow, to preserve the species’ adaptive potential. These results highlight the importance of conserving natural populations and implementing genetic management for ex-situ and managed stands.

Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) is a consortium of beneficial microorganisms having broad spectrum of mechanisms promoting plant growth. Sandal (Santalum album L.) seeds, in general have poor and staggered germination which is a major constraint in nursery management. Seed biopriming with beneficial microbes is one of the cheapest and eco-friendly seed enhancement techniques resulting in rapid, uniform, high crop establishment and yield. Fresh mature sandal seeds were procured from the Nachivayal Reserve Forest, Marayur Sandal Division, Kerala, India. The trial was conducted in two factorial Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with different concentrations of PGPR II(25, 50, 75 and 100 %) and different duration of the treatment (1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8 days) as factors. The effect of post-priming storage of one day and one week was also analyzed. The trial results in positive responses with respect to the germination percentage and seedling establishment. The highest germination was obtained for the seeds bioprimed at 50 % for 3 days (76.6 %) for post-priming storage of one week and highest seedling growth was obtained for the seeds bioprimed at 100 % for post-priming storage of one day and at 50 % for 3 days for post-priming storage one week. Both germination and seedling characters are its peak at biopriming with PGPR II at 50 % for 3 days subjected to post-priming storage of one week and hence recommended as the best treatment.

Plant diversity makes India one of the megabiodiverse countries in the world. But mankind has been exploiting plants for food and medicinal purposes since time immemorial. The vast number of plant species occupying the earth shows large diversity with respect to their habit, habitat, structure, function and life span. A Study was conducted to enumerate the tree diversity of plants of the College of Agriculture, Bheemarayanagudi campus during the year 2023-24. The whole campus was visited many times and collected information about the type of plants, their abundance and plants were identified based on the literature cited. The college campus has a total of 1678 no. of individuals of trees belonging to 52 species, 47 genera and 23 families. The maximum number of tree species has been recorded in Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (741) Simarouba glauca DC. (118), Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre. (109), Tectonagrandis L.f. (96), Cassia siamea Lam. (68), Monoon longifolium (Sonn.) B.Xue & R.M.K.Saunders, (68), Santalum album L. (53), Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. (45), Ficus lacor Buch-Ham. (43) and Roystonea regia (Kunth) O.F. Cook (43), etc. The results found that Meliaceae, Fabaceae, Simaroubaceae, Lamiaceae, and Moraceae were the dominant families. The campus has 2 endangered and economically important medicinal plants, such as Swietenia Mahagoni (L.) Jacq., and Tecoma undulata (Sm.) G.Don. and 01 vulnerable Santalum album L. species. The rationale of the present work is to document the tree species of each tax with scientific information about the campus.

Santalum album L. commercially known as East Indian Sandalwood is indigenous to peninsular India. The Sandalwood tree is highly regarded in the Vedic texts, and the heartwood is considered to be sacred. Sandalwood is considered the epitome of excellence, imparting fragrance even to the axe that cuts it. In the last few decades, the demand and value of the Santalum album Linn (Sandalwood) has increased significantly. Sandalwood trees are almost vanished in the natural forest due to over exploitation, smuggling, grassing, fire hazards, disease and deforestation. Sandalwood and its fragrant oil are in high demand on both domestic and international markets. State governments, meanwhile, are encouraging the growing interest in growing sandalwood on private land. In India, especially the state forest department, strictly regulates the sandalwood trade. Sandalwood cannot be sold directly to customers or private business partners by farmers. Sandalwood can be sold by farmers to government agencies. The state forest department will classify and list sandalwood lots for sale through an online auction platform with the necessary permits and inspections. The different state government classifications, imports, and exports of sandalwood and its aromatic oil were discussed in this research paper. Keywords: Santalum album, Sandalwood, Indian Sandalwood, Chandanam, Imports and Exports, Fragrance Wood, Sandal Oil, Perfume, Scent, Trade, Marketing.

The aim of the study was to determine the appropriate sowing time for sandalwood seeds at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India.Dried sandalwood seeds collected from Marayoor, Kerala were used in the study.Sandalwood seeds were treated for 16 to 24 hours with 0.05 % gibberellic acid and sown at 24 different dates throughout the year.Seeds sown in April showed superiority in all germination and growth parameters followed by August, 1 September and 15 March.The highest germination percentage (77.5),germination value st th(2.56), survival percentage (63), plant height (22.5 cm) and collar diameter (0.22 cm) were witnessed in 15 April sown seeds.Lowest plant height (4 cm) and collar diameter (0.07 cm) were in the December sown seeds which were at par with November and January.Sturdiness quotient and volume index was also higher in April sown seeds.Extreme temperatures, whether winter or summer affected germination and growth of sandalwood.The study concludes that period from 15 March to end April as well as August and September is suitable for th sandalwood seed sowing.

The present investigation was carried out in the laboratory of the Division of Silviculture and Agroforestry at Sher‑e‑Kashmir University of Agriculture Sciences and Technology of Jammu (SKUAST-J), Jammu & Kashmir UT, during the year 2023–24. The experiment was designed to evaluate the germination behaviour of Indian sandalwood seeds which were from authenticated seed-supply nurseries representing the selected sources procured at the time of the study. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed with seed source as the sole experimental factor, consisting of four treatments i.e. four seed sources- Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Himachal Pradesh. Each treatment was replicated five times and every replication comprised 12 seeds, making a total of 60 seeds per treatment. The seeds were placed on moistened germination paper arranged in germinator trays and maintained under controlled laboratory conditions to ensure uniformity. A comprehensive assessment of germination traits was undertaken, including germination percentage, germinative energy, coefficient of velocity of germination (CVG), mean daily germination (MDG) and mean germination time (MGT). Results revealed that all the parameters such as germination percentage, germinative energy, coefficient of velocity of germination (CVG), mean daily germination (MDG) and mean germination time (MGT) were significantly influenced by seed sources, indicating a strong influence of seed sources on seed performance under controlled conditions. Karnataka source achieved highest germination (75 %), germinative energy (36.67%), CVG (10.07), MDG (0.43) and fastest rate (MGT = 9.94 days), while the Himachal source performed poorest.

Seed Source Variation in Seed Traits, Germination and Seedling Growth Attributes of Sandalwood (Santalum album L.)

Abstract Santalum album L. (Sandalwood) is a highly valuable aromatic tree species facing increasing threats due to overharvesting and illegal trade. Effective conservation and law enforcement require reliable genetic identification methods to trace the origin of plant materials. This study aimed to identify and characterize EST-derived Simple Sequence Repeat (EST-SSR) markers in S. album to support conservation and illegal trade monitoring efforts. Transcriptome data were retrieved from the NCBI database (accession number SRX8832843), and SSR mining was conducted using the Microsatellite Identification Tool. De novo assembly of S. album transcriptomic data and subsequent SSR mining identified 9008 transcripts containing 501 perfect SSRs. Trinucleotide repeats were the most abundant (60.48%), followed by di- (37.92%), tetra- (1.4%), and hexanucleotide (0.2%). The most frequent SSR motifs were AG (125), AAG (65), and AT (43). From these, a total of 20 primer pairs were successfully designed. The developed EST-SSR markers represent a preliminary resource that may be useful for future genetic diversity assessments, population studies, and conservation initiatives following further validation.

Therapeutic potential of α-santalol: Sources, mechanisms, and anti-tumor prospects.

Santalum album L. (Sandalwood) is a commercially and medicinally significant tree species native to India and is widely distributed across Asia and Australia. Valued for its high-quality heartwood and essential oil, sandalwood plays a vital role in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and cultural industries. India contributes to more than 85% of global production, but natural populations have sharply declined due to overexploitation, habitat loss, and disease pressures. Recent genomic advancements, including chromosome-level genome assembly, transcriptomics, and proteomics, have provided critical insights into oil biosynthesis, heartwood formation, and stress response mechanisms. Studies have identified key transcription factors, such as MYB and WRKY; gene families, such as TPS and SAUR; and enzymes involved in secondary metabolism and abiotic stress tolerance. Molecular markers such as SSRs and SNPs have enabled the assessment of genetic diversity and structure across native and introduced populations, informing conservation and breeding programs. Functional genomic studies have also highlighted the importance of genotype-specific expression profiles for enhancing oil yield and climate resilience. Despite these advancements, key research gaps persist, including limited application of genomic tools in breeding, lack of functional gene validation, lack of CRISPR-based gene editing, and scanty early biomarkers. However, integrated silvicultural-genomic strategies, structured germplasm conservation, and supportive policies are crucial for enhancing productivity, resilience, and sustainable sandalwood cultivation. Therefore, the future research should focus on genome-assisted selection, CRISPR-based gene editing, and the development of functional markers for trait prediction. This review emphasizes the importance of multidisciplinary research in securing the long-term ecological and economic viability of S. album, addressing both production gaps and conservation challenges in the face of global climate change.

Indian sandalwood (Santalum album) is an economically important facultative parasite that develops a specialized multicellular organ, the haustorium, to absorb water and nutrients from its hosts. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying haustorium development, we conducted a transcriptome analysis across six S. album tissues. We found that SaRac1, encoding a functional small GTPase, is specifically expressed in the haustorium. We employed host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) by generating transgenic poplar (Populus alba × P. glandulosa) hosts that express hairpin RNAs to target and downregulate SaRac1 in the parasite. Santalum album grown with SaRac1 RNAi transgenic host plants exhibited significantly suppressed haustorium development compared with those grown with wild-type or empty-vector controls. Mechanistically, SaRac1 interacts with SaRbohA, and this interaction synergistically enhances ROS production. Exogenous H₂O₂ application significantly upregulated key haustorium formation-related genes. In contrast, the Rboh inhibitor diphenyliodonium chloride (DPI) suppressed the expression of SaYUCCA and SaSBT in S. album grown with wild-type and empty-vector control hosts, thereby reducing haustorium formation. In S. album plants grown with RNAi hosts, SaSBT and SaEXPA were also downregulated by DPI application. Our findings identify a crucial mechanism whereby SaRac1 promotes haustorium formation by modulating ROS signaling and provide novel insights into the molecular physiology of plant parasitism.