Sanitation Practices Research Articles

Genomic characterization of multidrug-resistant extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Vibrio cholerae O1 strains from 2022 cholera outbreak in Kenya.

In mid-2021, a global surge in cholera cases was reported. This study characterized Vibrio cholerae O1 isolates obtained from faecal samples of cholera-positive cases during the 2022 cholera outbreak in Kenya. A total of 202 V. cholerae were confirmed through serogroup and serotype characterization by slide agglutination. Susceptibility testing was done using the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method, and ESBL production confirmed using the double-disc synergy test. WGS was performed on Illumina and ONT platforms, followed by bioinformatics analysis. All the isolates were identified as V. cholerae O1 of Ogawa serotype, with 99% classified as MDR and 98.5% positive for ESBL production. Notably, the isolates were resistant to azithromycin, one of the recommended antibiotics for cholera treatment. MDR was linked to the acquisition of an IncC plasmid (pVCMLK181) carrying seven resistance genes, including mph(A), mph(E) and msr(E), which confer resistance to azithromycin, and the blaPER-7 ESBL gene. Resistance to nalidixic acid was associated with mutations in QRDRs of gyrA and parC. The isolates also carried SXT/R391-like ICE, ICEVchInd5 featuring a 10 kb deletion and mapped to the 7PET-AFR13 lineage. Phylogenetic analysis revealed a close relationship to other highly drug-resistant AFR13 strains reported in Tanzania, Comoros and Mayotte. The high prevalence of multidrug resistance in cholera isolates emphasizes the need for continuous surveillance to monitor the evolution of MDR V. cholerae O1 strains and calls for consideration of deployment of alternative management and prevention options including oral cholera vaccines and long-term improvement of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) infrastructure and practice.

Cultural and behavioral drivers of zoonotic disease transmission and persistence among diverse pastoralist communities in East Africa.

Zoonotic diseases such as brucellosis, Rift Valley fever, anthrax, rabies and bovine tuberculosis are highly prevalent among pastoralist communities in low-and middle-income countries. This study adopts a One Health approach, employing a range of participatory methods including informal observations, "go-along interviews," narrative-, and key informant- interviews, to explore the cultural, behavioral, and structural drivers of zoonotic disease transmission among pastoralist communities in East Africa. We unpack how the physical environment, socio-economic systems, health systems, community influence and cultural competence as well as individual pastoralists' unique characteristics, behaviors and lifestyles can be leveraged for effective public health interventions that reduce zoonotic risks and improve health outcomes for both humans and livestock. We present data from 214 purposively selected participants, including 19 key informants, 68 in-depth interviews, 20 focus group discussions, and 22 direct ethnographic observations. Traditional knowledge and beliefs, risky cultural dietary practices such as consumption of raw milk, meat and blood, unprotected parturition assistance, unsafe disposal of carcasses and aborted fetuses were common and carried increased risk of zoonotic transmission. Women and children handled and milked small ruminants while adult men and morans (young warriors) were mostly involved with cattle, camels and slaughtering; hence exposing them to zoonotic pathogens disproportionately. There were piles of manure made up of animal excreta and secretions that were potentially highly contaminated with saprophytes and soil-borne zoonotic pathogens. While livestock play a significant and indispensable role in the daily livelihoods of pastoralist communities, close association of pastoralists with livestock coupled with their unique cultural and behavioral practices increases their risk of exposure to deadly zoonotic diseases. Although, most of these practices are environmentally and culturally adaptive, their risk for transmission is often overlooked. The study also highlights inadequate sanitary practices, poor disposal of animal carcasses and placentae and the absence of veterinary oversight in the production, distribution and consumption of livestock products. Our study provides a holistic understanding of the subjective perspectives and nuanced insights underlying the emergence and persistence of zoonotic diseases within pastoralist communities. It also underscores the need for culturally sensitive One Health interventions that address these practices and enhance community awareness of zoonotic disease risks and prevention strategies which are often overlooked by conventional epidemiological studies.

Limited access to clean water and sanitation in Mopeia, Mozambique: a description in the context of a cholera outbreak.

Inadequate access to safe water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) accounts for a high burden of morbidity and mortality in impoverished regions. This is significantly due to infectious diseases and the direct impact on social and economic well-being. The high burden of communicable diseases and malnutrition in Mozambique, as well as high vulnerability to climate change, results in increased risk of WASH-related diseases. Our objective was to describe access to safe water and sanitation practices in Mopeia, a remote rural district in Mozambique. The source of data for this analysis is a cross-sectional, demographic survey carried out in Mopeia in 2021 under the Broad One Health Endectocide-based Malaria Intervention in Africa project, a cluster-randomised trial to assess the impact of ivermectin on malaria transmission. The survey was conducted in all households of a sub-population created for the trial, and it included questions about WASH-related practices at the household level. The results showed that 4200 (56.29%) households have an improved water source at walking distance, which is drastically different to sanitation practices, where 6608 (88.56%) households do not have access to at least one basic sanitation service. Data on water access for Mopeia was similar to that reported in rural contexts in sub-Saharan Africa, yet the district remains off-track from achieving universal safe water coverage in the next few years. Regarding sanitation, the use of unsafe sanitation services is more widespread than in the average rural sub-Saharan Africa (75.00%), with twice as many households (n = 3897, 56.08%) practising open land defecation. Mopeia is still far from achieving universal safe water and sanitation coverage by 2030, especially in sanitation, and remains prone to outbreaks and has a high burden of WASH-related diseases.

Extended-Spectrum β-lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli in Retail Pork and Market Environments: Genetic Diversity and Antimicrobial Resistance in Thailand.

The increasing prevalence of extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli (E. coli) highlights the growing issue of multidrug resistance within the food processing chain. This study aimed to determine the prevalence, antimicrobial resistance profiles, molecular genetic structures, and genetic diversity of ESBL-producing E. coli isolated from pork, cutting boards, and knives. A total of 90 samples were collected from 10 local markets in Southern Thailand. ESBL-producing E. coli were identified in 9 samples (10%), with knife samples showing the highest contamination rate (5/90, 5.55%). The ESBL-producing E. coli isolates exhibited high-level resistance to ampicillin (100%), ceftriaxone (88.89%), and cefpodoxime (88.89%), followed by tetracycline (77.78%). Multidrug resistance was detected in 88.89% (8/9) of ESBL-producing E. coli isolates and 28.26% (13/46) of all E. coli isolates. All presumptive ESBL-producing isolates carried ESBL resistance genes (9/9, 100%), with blaCTX-M-1 being the most prevalent (6/9, 66.67%). Additionally, the tetA gene was frequently detected in ESBL-producing E. coli (6/9, 66.67%) and in all E. coli isolates (16/46, 34.78%). Overall, E. coli O157:H7 was identified in 5 isolates (10.87%). The genetic relatedness analysis revealed that five ESBL-producing E. coli isolates were closely related to E. coli ATCC 23502. Our findings confirm a high prevalence of ESBL-producing E. coli carrying resistance genes in knife samples, underscoring the importance of proper sanitary handling practices to minimize microbial contamination in pork retail shops.

Enterobius vermicularis infection and its risk factors among rural schoolchildren in Zhejiang Province: a cross-sectional study

Pinworm infection, caused by Enterobius vermicularis, is highly prevalent in humans, with children being particularly susceptible. This cross-sectional study (2022–2024) investigated the epidemiology and risk factors of E. vermicularis infection among 1179 rural schoolchildren (3–9 years) across four districts in Zhejiang Province. In each district, two kindergartens and two primary schools were selected using simple random sampling. Pinworm infection was identified using adhesive cellophane tape perianal swabbing method. Data on demographics, hygiene habits, and school environment were collected through structured questionnaires. Simple logistic regression analysis was performed for each potential risk factor, and those variables with a P value less than 0.1 were selected for the multivariate logistic regression analysis. The overall infection rate was 4.07%, with the highest prevalence in Xinchang (9.79%), followed by Daishan (2.68%), Wucheng (2.44%), and Yongkang (1.64%). The positive rate among girls was higher than that of boys (5.41% vs. 2.81%, P = 0.020). Among girls, older subjects had a notably higher infection rate compared to younger ones (8.08% vs. 3.19%). Besides, the infection rate of primary school subjects was higher than that of kindergarten subjects (7.48% vs. 3.23%). No significant differences were found in the boys’ group. Furthermore, weekly classroom disinfection and monthly health education were associated with lower infection rates. This study underscores the prevalence of E. vermicularis infection in rural schoolchildren in Zhejiang Province and identifies significant risk factors. Strengthening hygiene education and sanitation practices, particularly targeting female students, may serve as effective measures against E. vermicularis infection.

Practices of Pig Farmers and <i>Porcine</i> <i>Salmonella</i> occurrence in Nasarawa State

Abstract Farming practices such as the use of antibiotics, feed and feed additives, housing as well as biosecurity measures are important factors leading to spread and persistence of infectious agents and pathogens in farms, environment and transmission of infectious agents to humans. The aim of this study was to assess pig farmers practices and the occurrence of Porcine Salmonella in Nasarawa State of Nigeria. A total of 637 farmers were assessed across the tree agro-ecological zones of the State comprising of 13 local government areas using structured questionnaires alongside 637 fecal samples collected from pigs to determine the association between management practices, Biosecurity practices and general hygiene vis-a-vis Salmonella occurrence. The fecal samples were subjected to culture and isolation methods as described by ISO 6579: +A1:2007. Data from questionnaire responses were subjected to multivariate logistic regression analysis using Epi info version 7.2 to ascertain the risk factors. The study recorded Porcine Salmonella occurrence and observed gaps in knowledge and best farm practices such as farm sanitation practices, biosecurity measures, unhygienic containment methods, feed and water administration promoting the occurrence of Porcine Salmonella. A coordinated One-Health approached is recommended in order to curtail Salmonella transmission and safeguarding the environment from contamination and the health of pig farmers of Nasarawa State.

Multicentric Evaluation of Antimicrobial Sensitivity Profile of Typhoidal Salmonella

Abstract Introduction: In India, typhoid or enteric fever caused by Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi and Paratyphi (A, B, and C) is a major public health problem. The causative agents are spread by contaminated food and water. Over the past few years, a steady rise in the number of cases of enteric fever has been observed, making India, a country with the highest burden, globally. An early and accurate diagnosis of enteric fever is essential to differentiate it from other causes of tropical fever. Surveillance of antimicrobial resistance in typhoidal salmonella is also a priority. Thus, the primary aim of this study is to ascertain antimicrobial-resistant profile of typhoidal Salmonella isolated at tertiary care hospital of western India over the past 1 year. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted at two tertiary care teaching hospitals of Delhi Cantonment region (Hospital A, the primary study center and Hospital B, the secondary study center) following approval from the Institutional Ethics Committee. Microbiological culture and antibiotic sensitivity testing data, specific to Salmonella isolates, were retrieved for the blood culture samples submitted between June 2023 and May 2024 from individuals presenting with undiagnosed fever. The corresponding hematological and biochemical profile of patients with blood culture-confirmed diagnosis of enteric fever was retrieved and tabulated. Results: Overall, 108 and 91 Salmonella isolates were recovered from hospital A and B, respectively, during the study period. The ratio of Salmonella Typhi and Salmonella Paratyphi A isolation rate was 3:1. Sensitivity to cotrimoxazole, amoxycillin-clavulanic acid, third/fourth generation cephalosporins, azithromycin, and carbapenem was fairly preserved (range; 93%–100%). The data showed 74% and 89% of all Salmonella isolates from hospital A and B, respectively, were resistant to quinolones. Conclusion: The study indicated preserved sensitivity to macrolides, cotrimoxazole, amoxycillin-clavulanic acid, third and fourth-generation cephalosporins in S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi A. Anti-typhoid vaccination drive, improvement in sanitation practices and provision of safe water is essential to halt the spread of enteric fever in community.

PREVALENCE AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF GASTROINTESTINAL PARASITES IN SELECTED EDIBLE FRUITS AND VEGETABLES SOLD IN EKPOMA MARKETS, EDO STATE

Fruits and vegetables are essential components of healthy diet because of their high nutritional and antioxidative properties, but could also constitute risk to human health when consumed unclean. This study assessed the prevalence and public perception of gastrointestinal parasites in commonly consumed fruits and vegetables sold in Ekpoma Markets, Edo State, from September to December 2024. A Total of 150 fruits and vegetable samples were randomly purchased from three selected markets (Ekpoma Main Market, Iruekpen Market and Opoji Market). The samples were analysed using sedimentation technique and examined microscopically for parasitic contamination. Structured questionnaires were administered to gather data on knowledge, hygiene practices and healthcare-seeking behaviour of the vendors. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and Chi-square tests. The results revealed an overall prevalence rate of 64.7%, with vegetables exhibiting a higher contamination rate (70.7%) compared to fruits (58.7%). Iruekpen Market recorded the highest contamination rate (76.0%). Five gastrointestinal parasites were detected: Ascaris lumbricoides, hookworm, Strongyloides spp., Trichuris trichiura and coccidia, with hookworm being the most prevalent (31.3%). Public awareness of the potential for contamination was high, with 93.33% of respondents acknowledging the risk. However, many of the participant still relied on traditional treatment methods rather than seeking medical care. More than half of participants, (56.7%), reported regular deworming every few months. This study highlights the need for improved public health education on produce hygiene and emphasize the use of medical care over traditional remedies. Implementation of better sanitation practices in produce markets and encouragement of regular deworming are...

PRESENT WATER AND HYGIENE SITUATION IN SAKI, A SOUTHWESTERN CITY IN OYO STATE, NIGERIA

Present water and hygiene situation in Saki was studied to establish the real scenario for enlightenment and for present and future considerations. The study employs descriptive approach of investigation using a well structured questionnaire administered on 280 respondents in varying household randomly selected across the city in ten communities. Additional data were obtained through personal observation and interview. 270 questionnaires were retrieved. The respondents revealed that no piped water from treatment plant was available in Saki as of present. However, the varying sources of water available were borehole owned by private individuals and Government as claimed by 45 (16.70%) respondents. Over two-third of the respondents (69%) uses dug well that are extracted manually with rope tied on sewn tyre tube containers called loko or doro in the local dialect lowered into the well to fetch water. Motorized dug well were 12 (4.30%) and those that relied mainly on Surface waters were 27 (10.00%) of the respondents. 37%, 3%, and 60% respectively disposes their wastewater in open drainage, community drainage and open space. Majority of the households 71% had household latrines in their compound, 1 % observe pay to use latrines operated by some private individuals, and 29 % observed open field defecation due to unavailability of toilets in their compound. The observed poor sanitation and hygiene practices clearly negate the government aim of completely eliminating open defecation in Nigeria by 2025. Government should prioritize reawakening and expansion of the Oge dam to supply treated water to the entire populace, ensure full compliance to the existing laws governing water supply, disposal, sanitation and hygiene and as well sanction erring communities and persons appropriately.

Distribusi Kejadian Diare pada Balita dan Kualitas Sumber Air Minum di Indonesia: Studi Ekologi

Background: Diarrhea is an infectious disease with the third highest mortality rate in children under 5 years of age globally. The Indonesian Ministry of Health states that 88% of deaths from diarrhea in children are caused by poor sanitation practices and inadequate quality of drinking water sources. This study aims to describe the distribution of the quality of drinking water sources and the prevalence of diarrhea in all provinces in Indonesia. Methods: This study used an ecological study approach with secondary aggregate data from Survei Kesehatan Indonesia (SKI) 2023 and Studi Kualitas Air Minum Rumah Tangga (SKAM RT) 2020. The independent variable in this study was the quality of drinking water sources and the dependent variable was the prevalence of diarrhea in children under five. This study looked at all provinces in Indonesia with the number of provinces analyzed was 34 provinces according to the SKAM RT 2020 data. Results: The results showed that there were differences of prevalence of diarrhea in children under five years old with the highest prevalence in Papua (16.6%) and the lowest in Kepulauan Riau (1.4%). The quality of drinking water sources also varied with the highest percentage of unfit drinking water sources in Sulawesi Barat (21.6%) and the lowest in DKI Jakarta (0.0%). Conclusions: High variation in diarrhea prevalence and the quality of drinking water sources across provinces in Indonesia highlights the infrastructure gap between urban and rural areas, suggesting that rural areas require more specialised attention.

The effect of behavioral factors of defecation, drinking water sources and housewives' handwashing habits on the incidence of stunting in the working area of the brand health center

Stunting a critical nutritional issue affecting toddlers in low- and middle-income countries like Indonesia, leads to significant economic losses through reduced productivity, increased healthcare costs, and diminished human resource quality. This study explored how factors such as defecation behavior, drinking water sources, and maternal handwashing habits influence stunting in the Brand Health Center area of Karo Regency. Findings revealed that toddlers aged 0-3 years were predominantly affected by stunting, with 100% of the stunting group showing underweight issues. While gender did not significantly impact stunting rates, nutritional status was severely compromised in the stunting group compared to the control. Maternal income was a notable factor, with lower income linked to higher stunting rates, although maternal education and working status did not show significant correlations. Larger family size and poor sanitation practices were more prevalent in the stunting group, as were unqualified drinking water sources. Handwashing with soap was slightly more common in the non-stunted group but did not significantly affect stunting rates. These results underscore the need for a comprehensive approach to improve clean water access, sanitation, and handwashing practices to address and reduce stunting in affected areas.

Bacteriological evaluation of Kunu beverages sold in university communities of Bokkos, Plateau State, Nigeria

Kunu is a widely consumed indigenous non-alcoholic beverage in northern Nigeria, valued for its nutritional benefits, cultural significance, and economic importance. This study assessed the bacteriological quality of kunu, a traditional non-alcoholic fermented beverage, sold within the university communities of Bokkos Local Government Area, Plateau State, Nigeria. A total of 30 kunu samples were randomly collected and subjected to standard microbiological procedures to isolate, characterize, and identify bacterial contaminants. Colonial morphology, Gram staining, and biochemical tests were employed for bacterial identification. The total viable bacterial counts were also determined using the pour plate method. Four bacterial species were consistently isolated: Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Enterobacter aerogenes. The most frequently detected organism was S. aureus (35.71%), followed by E. coli (28.57%). Morphological and biochemical characteristics of the isolates corresponded with standard descriptions, validating their identification. Bacterial loads ranged from 0.0 to 5.5 × 10⁵ CFU/mL, with most samples exceeding the maximum acceptable limit of 10⁴ CFU/mL for ready-to-drink beverages, as recommended by the International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods. Statistical analysis revealed no significant difference (p = 0.4142) in the distribution of bacterial species across the samples. The presence of enteric and pathogenic bacteria in most samples suggests poor hygienic practices during preparation, handling, and storage. The study underscores the need for public health education, improved sanitary practices among vendors, and regulatory monitoring to ensure the safety of traditional beverages like kunu consumed by the public.

Assessment of Microbiological Quality, Nutrient Composition, and Physical Characteristics in Groundnut Flour (nsinjiro) Sold in Local Markets in Central and Southern Regions of Malawi

Background of study: Malawi produces groundnuts for consumption, trade, and animal feed. Microbiological quality, nutrient composition, physical properties, in groundnut flour sold in Malawian markets had not been identified and studied extensively. Therefore, their nature and extent of distribution needed to be documented as the basis for intervention programs in Malawi.Aims and scope of paper: To assess Microbiological Quality, Nutrient composition, and Physical Characteristics in Groundnut Flour sold in Local markets in Central and Southern Regions of Malawi.Methods: In the Central, 16 samples were purchased of 32 while in the Southern region, 22 samples were purchased of 39 respectively. Samples were stored in a deep freezer at 4 OC for 26 days pending analysis. Later samples were analyzed using multiple standard methods and the data were analyzed using SPSS.Result: 18.42% of samples contained E. coli ranging from 0 to 30 cfu/g, and 13.16% contained Salmonella ranging from 0 to 70 cfu/g, and these exceeded the permissible limits for Malawi and the International Commission on Microbiological Standards for Foods. The limit for Malawi is 10,000 cfu/g, while the ICMSF is 500,000 cfu/g. They contained protein (30.67%), carbohydrate (37.87%), fat (43.90%), and ash (3.43%). They were light in color with L* (49.79-59.88).Conclusion: The results indicated that the groundnut flour studied was susceptible to microbial contamination, hence, hygienic monitoring before marketing is required. Policy enactment for sanitary practices, and enforcement of standards to reduce the menace of microbes and avoid food-borne diseases among the populace is required.

The Influence of Sanitation and Hygiene-related Practices on the Prevalence of Intestinal Helminthes in IDP Camps and Adjourning Host Communities in Benue State Nigeria

The Influence of Sanitation and Hygiene-related Practices on the Prevalence of Intestinal Helminthes in IDP Camps and Adjourning Host Communities in Benue State Nigeria

Groundwater microbial quality and risk evaluation in a rapidly transforming urbanized area of Northern Ghana

BackgroundTamale’s position as a rapidly transforming area presents some merits and challenges including spatial developments and rising demand for safe water respectively. Groundwater remains a primary source of drinking water in many low-resource settings; however, its safety is often compromised by microbial contamination. This study assessed groundwater microbial quality, sanitary characteristics and E. coli infection risk amidst rising urbanisation in the metropolis.MethodsUsing cluster and purposive sampling, different suburbs and 20 groundwater sites were selected for water sampling and sanitary inspection. Descriptive (median and interquartile range) and inferential statistics (binomial regression, standard t-test, Mann-Whitney U test) were applied to present an overview of the microbial load and risk levels respectively.ResultsThe study results showed median levels for dug- well water as follows: turbidity 78 (9.75–114) NTU; total coliforms 372 (0-15500) cfu; faecal coliform 11 (0-640) cfu; E. coli 0 (0–50) cfu. Regarding boreholes, turbidity recorded 119 (80–148) NTU; total coliforms 6 E + 02 (0–72 E + 02) cfu; faecal coliform 0 (0-200) cfu; E. coli (0-300) cfu. The prevalence of coliforms, multiple risk factors and unsafe turbidity levels confirmed the poor sanitary and unhygienic practices that characterized the majority of the water sources. E. coli infection risk was associated with dug-wells with none recorded against boreholes.ConclusionsIn conclusion, the study findings indicated that tested water sources were microbially contaminated and posed a potential infection risk; therefore periodic disinfection and proper maintenance of aprons, covers and auxiliary components of dug- wells and boreholes are recommended.

Water and sanitation practices at household level in Rupa Rural Municipality, Kaski, Nepal

Introduction: Water, sanitation, and hygiene-related infrastructure, practices, and services are crucial preconditions for stopping the spread of illness. Thus the study aimed to assess the household-level sanitation and water practices in Rupa Rural Municipality, Kaski, Nepal. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among household in Rupa Rural Municipality of Kaski district, Nepal. The study was conducted from October 6 to October 16, 2024. Observation checklist was used for observation of water and sanitation practices. Waste segregation, waste management, water purification, toilet availability, whether the toilet was clean, and the presence of soap and water in the toilet were all taken into consideration while evaluating the dependent variable. These objects were divided into two categories, 0 and 1. Following the addition of these criteria, sanitation practices were grouped according to mean values. Chi-square tests was applied at 5% level of significance. Results: Out of 384 households, 75.80% reported having a separate kitchen in their home. Majority (81%) said they separated their garbage, and 55.8% had effective waste disposal practices. More than half (52.30%) of the water in the home was filtered. Among the total household, 80% had good sanitation practices while 20% had poor sanitation practices. The results show that there was a significant association of age and religion of household with the sanitation practices. Conclusions: The study highlights there was gap in hygiene behavior and sanitation practices at household level. More attention must be paid to infrastructure investments that enable effective waste management services and water purification.

Peduli Mahasiswa Terhadap Sanitasi Lingkungan Pasar Tradisional Motamasin-Betun

In an effort to improve the quality of environmental sanitation in traditional markets, this community service program involves students as agents of change. Traditional markets are often a gathering place for various wastes and impurities, which can have a negative impact on public health. This activity aims to increase public awareness and knowledge, especially traders and market visitors, about the importance of environmental sanitation. Through the social services carried out, students provide information about good sanitation practices and how to maintain a clean environment. The results of this activity are expected to create positive changes, improve public health, and make traditional markets a clean and comfortable place. This program is not only beneficial to the community, but also a valuable experience for students in applying the knowledge they learn, as well as developing social concern and responsibility for the environment.

Optimal Control of Vector-borne Diseases through Awareness Programmes on Vaccination and Sanitation Practices

Optimal Control of Vector-borne Diseases through Awareness Programmes on Vaccination and Sanitation Practices

Review on the Occurrence of Mycotoxigenic Fungi in Dried Fruits and the Role of Stored-Product Insects

Dried fruits, which are widely produced in different parts of the world, and, especially in the Mediterranean basin, are broadly known for their durability and their nutritional value. This is primarily due to their ability to be stored for long periods of time and their concentrated nutrient content. However, these fruits can be at risk of contamination by specific stored-product insects and various toxigenic fungal species at different stages of their production process, including cultivation, harvesting, processing, drying, and storage. As a result, the dried fruits that are consumed may contain mycotoxins, which pose a potential risk for human health. The risk is significant in both industrialized and developing nations, as climate change and inadequate sanitation practices contribute to the proliferation of mycotoxins in these commodities. It is worth noting that there are several factors that contribute to the production of mycotoxins, such as the type of fruit, geographical location, climatic conditions, harvest treatments, and storage management practices, with specialized insects, known as “stored-product insects”, playing a crucial role in this latter stage. Therefore, it is critically important to gain a comprehensive understanding of the interaction among insects, fungi, and mycotoxins to effectively mitigate this problem. In this review, the primary objective is to bridge the knowledge gap by consolidating data from various regions to gain a global perspective on this topic.

Fecal ingestion rate based on worker activity patterns during stool handling in a ruminant farm

Farm workers who handle livestock stools face an increased risk of infection by pathogenic bacteria, such as Escherichia coli O157 and Salmonella spp., leading to millions of severe health issues and thousands of fatalities annually. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of these pathogens by measuring their concentrations, determining rates of unintentional fecal consumption, and conducting a quantitative assessment of microbial risk. An integrated farm in Sukabumi City, Indonesia, was examined for E. coli O157 and Salmonella spp. in livestock stools. Additionally, the study monitored the rate of incidental fecal ingestion among farm workers. Stool samples were collected (n= 40) from ruminants and analyzed following ISO 16649-1:2018, ISO 9308-1:2014, and ISO 6579-1:2017/Amd.1:2020. The study tracked worker’s behavior daily to determine the contact time. The fecal ingestion rate was calculated by multiplying the estimated stool weight ingested by the contact time workers spent cleaning livestock stools in the barn each day. Microbial analysis revealed that the highest concentration of E. coli O157 in beef cattle stools was 2.49 log10 CFU/g. The study determined mean fecal ingestion rates during the dry season (8.64 mg/day) and rainy season (6.84 mg/day). Results from the quantitative microbial risk assessment showed that stool from beef cattle posed a higher risk of E. coli O157 infection compared to other ruminants, with an estimated disease burden of 9.8 × 10-3 pppy. This study represents the first comprehensive quantitative evaluation of fecal ingestion by farm workers during animal husbandry. The findings underscore the need for improved worker safety measures, such as enhanced sanitation practices and protective equipment, to mitigate the risks of handling livestock stools.