Sanitary Guidelines Research Articles

Affiliation in times of pandemics: Determinants and consequences.

Affiliation is a basic human need, especially during difficult times. To what extent did the need to affiliate limit our capacity to abide by health guidelines, in particular regarding social distancing, during the COVID-19 pandemic? We investigated this issue using questionnaire data from two samples of the French population collected during the first French lockdown (April-May 2020). We found that in men, higher social comparison orientation (sensitivity to the needs of others and inclination to help) and higher perceived threat increased the frequency of reported affiliative activities. At the same time, men's reported affiliative activities were associated with a lower reported intention to abide by lockdown and protective measures and lower levels of reported compliance. This pattern was not found in women. The women in our samples, as has been observed elsewhere, were largely compliant, potentially precluding any effects of affiliative needs. Basic though they may seem, affiliative needs and reported affiliative activities may have played a significant role in the implementation of sanitary guidelines during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Impact of Maternal-Newborn Separation in Italian Women with Suspected COVID-19 Infection on Psychopathological Symptoms and Quality of Interactions during Breastfeeding

Introduction: Before the COVID-19 pandemic, proximity between mothers and their newborn infants was at the core of sanitary guidelines. With the aim of stopping the virus transmission from mothers to infants and possible physical dangers due to the infection, some hospitals discouraged or even prohibited skin-to-skin contact and breastfeeding. Method: This study recruited 180 dyads in private and public hospitals in Italy with the aim of verifying whether mother-infant separation after delivery is associated with higher maternal psychopathological distress (assessed through the SCL-90-R) and poorer quality of dyadic interactions during breastfeeding (evaluated through the SVIA). Results: Our results showed that mothers separated from their infants displayed more anxiety, depression, and obsessive-compulsive symptoms and a lower quality of feeding interactions on all the subscales of the SVIA (mother’s affective state; interactive conflict; food refusal behavior; dyad’s affective state). Conclusion: In light of these results, our study suggests that separating mothers from their newborns is associated with increased psychopathological symptoms in mothers and poorer feeding interactions. These issues have been posited as key predictors of maladaptive outcomes in infants’ later lives; therefore, health services must fully consider the short- and long-term consequences of separating mothers and infants in their policies in the event of future pandemics.

Health status and infectious diseases in male unaccompanied immigrant minors from Africa in Spain

IntroductionThe aim was to examine the health status and infectious diseases in a cohort of unaccompanied immigrant minors (UIMs) from Africa in Spain, and to detect if there are differences according to the geographical area of origin. MethodsCross-sectional study in 622 African male UIMs at the time of admission to residential care in Aragon (Spain) during 2005-2019. A physical, nutritional and laboratory examination was performed following sanitary guidelines. ResultsThe mean age of the African UIMs was 16.1 years (SD 1.7; range 13-17). 88.9% were from Maghreb (mean age 15.9 years; SD 1.5) and 14.1% from Western Sub-Saharan (mean age 16.8 years; SD 1). We found that the prevalence of caries, iron deficiency and dermatological problems was significantly higher (p<.05) among Maghrebian, and the prevalence of past and present hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection, intestinal parasitosis, eosinophilia (p<.00001) and latent tuberculosis (p=.0034) was significantly higher in those of Sub-Saharan origin. ConclusionThe most relevant finding was the high prevalence of present HBV infection (14.8%) among Sub-Saharan adolescents. This finding highlights the importance of recommending targeted screening, preventive vaccination programs, and integration into local health care systems that allow for long-term treatment and follow-up as a way to prevent the transmission of HBV infection.

In vitro performance and in vivo fertility of antibiotic-free preserved boar semen stored at 5\u2009\xb0C

BackgroundHypothermic preservation of boar semen is considered a potential method for omitting antibiotics from insemination doses, thereby contributing to the global antibiotic resistance defence strategy. The main challenges are chilling injury to spermatozoa and bacterial growth during semen storage leading to reduced fertility.ObjectivesTo examine chilling injury and the number and type of bacteria in boar semen stored at 5 °C in the absence of antibiotics, and to assess the applicability of hypothermic semen storage under field conditions.Material and methodsBoar ejaculates were extended with AndroStar® Premium, stored at 17 °C with and at 5 °C without antibiotics and tested for functional sperm parameters by flow cytometry. Raw semen and extended samples were investigated bacteriologically. Fertility was evaluated after once-daily inseminations of 194 sows in a field study.ResultsLethal sperm damage assessed by motility and membrane integrity was low throughout storage in both experimental groups. Sublethal chilling effects based on the decrease of viable spermatozoa with low membrane fluidity were higher (P < 0.05) up until 72 h in sperm stored at 5 °C compared to 17 °C but did not differ after 144 h. After 72 h, incubation in capacitating medium for 60 min induced a similar decrease in viable sperm with high mitochondria membrane potential and low cytosolic calcium in both groups. In semen stored at 5 °C, bacteria counts were below 103 CFU/mL and the bacteria spectrum was similar to that of raw semen. In 88% of 34 boars, cooled semen fulfilled the requirements for insemination. Fertility was high and did not differ (P > 0.05) between sow groups inseminated with semen stored antibiotic-free at 5 °C and semen stored at 17 °C with antibiotics.ConclusionDespite subtle chilling effects and low bacterial numbers, antibiotic-free hypothermic storage of boar semen offers the possibility to reduce the use of antibiotics in pig insemination. However, strict sanitary guidelines must be maintained and further evidence of efficiency under field conditions is considered desirable.

Stress detection and monitoring based on low-cost mobile thermography

The high level of stress in modern life is one of the huge problems of the 21st century society, especially in the context of the Covid-19 pandemic. With the pandemic, the need for inexpensive, portable and easy-to-use health monitoring tools (mental and physical) has increased. Of particular importance here is mobile (smartphone) thermography, as it enables the initial detection and self-control of stress, which being intensified nowadays, is the cause of many diseases, depression and health problems. The smartphone thermal imaging camera responds to the strict sanitary guidelines, offering contact-free, painless and non-invasive operation. Additionally, it is included in the group of low-cost solutions available for home use. It is an alternative to commonly used (often expensive and unavailable to everyone): EMG, ECG, EEG, GSR or other high-cost stress detection tools. Thermal imaging by analyzing abnormalities or temperature changes allows for detection application. Therefore, the aim of this work is to determine the possibilities of a low-budget mobile thermal imaging camera in detecting stress, detecting and analyzing stress by identifying the characteristics of psychophysiological signals with the individual characteristics of the participants, along with the correlation. The participants’ reactions to the film introducing stress tension up to the climax of the action were recorded thermographically. Data was processed in OpenCV. In the usual observation, stress often remained unnoticed. However, the thermographic analysis provided detailed information on the impact of the film’s stressful situation on the participants, with the possibility of distinguishing the stages of stress. The results of the preliminary pilot study were presented, which indicated the variability of temperature and heart rate as important indicators of stress – with the simultaneous significance of individual characteristics of the participant. Smartphone stress thermography is a promising method of monitoring human stress, especially at home.

Exposure to agricultural pesticides and use of personal protection equipment by small-scale farmers in a municipality of Minas Gerais, Brazil

The use of agricultural pesticides in Brazil has significantly increased during recent decades, especially due to the competition between the internal Brazilian market and that for exports. Pesticides are among the most important risk factors for the health of the general population, especially workers, and the environment, resulting in a scenario of increased public spending on health and social damage due to pollution by such chemicals, with emphasis on organophosphates and carbamates. When these substances are managed incorrectly, such as when personal protection equipment (PPE) is not used, or when they are inadequately discarded without adhering to sanitary disposal guidelines, they can cause pollution and short- and long-term damage to health. This paper therefore surveys the knowledge base of small-scale farmers with respect to exposure to agrochemicals and the importance of use of PPEs. This qualitative and transversal study relied upon the voluntary participation of 64 residents of a rural area. The study was initiated after having received approval of the Committee for Ethics in Research, and after the participants signed an informed consent form. A questionnaire was given to the participants which used multiple choice and open-ended questions. All the participants stated that they use fertilizers and other agrochemicals, and that they do not use or only sporadically use PPEs. All the participants related that they have not had access to specialized technical assistance to help with proper use of agrochemical products, and that they store these products inadequately in their house or in other inappropriate places. These small-scale farmers do not use PPEs and underestimate the damage to their health and that of their family that can be caused by improper use of agrochemicals, and also demonstrate a lack of technical knowledge with respect to adequate management of these products.

Achievements and Challenges of Classical Swine Fever Eradication in Brazil.

Classical swine fever virus (CSFV) causes one of the most critical diseases in the porcine industry worldwide. In Brazil, the first description of the infection was reported in 1888, and the national recognition of the first free zone (FZ) occurred in 2001. Brazil has been recently recognized (2015–2016) by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) with an FZ involving 15 states and the Federal District, corresponding to 95% of the industrial production of pigs in the country, and a non-free zone (NFZ), comprised by the North and Northeast regions of the country, with approximately 18% of the national pig herd and 5% of industrial production. This review aims to describe the history, the control and eradication actions, the recent occurrence of outbreaks in the NFZ, and the results obtained by the surveillance systems’ action in the FZ for CSF in Brazil since its creation. In the passive surveillance system, the notification of the suspect cases of classical swine fever (CSF) is mandatory while in the active surveillance system adopted in the FZ consists of serological monitoring of certified swine breeding farms (CSBFs), intensive pig farming (IPF), non-technified pig herds (NTPig), surveillance in slaughterhouses and monitoring the populations of wild pigs. In this region, the last outbreaks of the disease occurred in 1998, while in the NFZ, 28 outbreaks were detected from 2005 to 2017, with an apparent lethality rate of 93.96% (840/894). However, in 2018 and 2019, 68 new outbreaks were registered with an apparent lethality rate of 75.05% (1095/1459). Therefore, in 2019, the Brazil CSF-Free Strategic Plan was created to eradicate the infection from the country’s NFZ, since outbreaks in this region present a risk of reintroducing the disease FZ. Finally, differences in characteristics between the regions show factors that still need to be considered for the construction of a robust surveillance system in the NFZ and some improvements in the FZ. Thus, the control of CSF throughout the Brazilian territory requires strict sanitary guidelines, promoting animal health and, consequently, the national production chain’s competitiveness.

Health status and infectious diseases in male unaccompanied immigrant minors from Africa in Spain

IntroductionThe aim was to examine the health status and infectious diseases in a cohort of unaccompanied immigrant minors (UIMs) from Africa in Spain, and to detect if there are differences according to the geographical area of origin. MethodsCross-sectional study in 622 African male UIMs at the time of admission to residential care in Aragon (Spain) during 2005-2019. A physical, nutritional and laboratory examination was performed following sanitary guidelines. ResultsThe mean age of the African UIMs was 16.1 years (SD 1.7; range 13-17). 88.9% were from Maghreb (mean age 15.9 years; SD 1.5) and 14.1% from Western Sub-Saharan (mean age 16.8 years; SD 1). We found that the prevalence of caries, iron deficiency and dermatological problems was significantly higher (p<.05) among Maghrebian, and the prevalence of past and present hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection, intestinal parasitosis, eosinophilia (p<.00001) and latent tuberculosis (p=.0034) was significantly higher in those of Sub-Saharan origin. ConclusionThe most relevant finding was the high prevalence of present HBV infection (14.8%) among Sub-Saharan adolescents. This finding highlights the importance of recommending targeted screening, preventive vaccination programs, and integration into local health care systems that allow for long-term treatment and follow-up as a way to prevent the transmission of HBV infection.

COVID 19 en fase 2 sostenida. Experiencia quirúrgica inicial en el Hospital Macie

Introduction. In Uruguay, the start of the pandemic was decreed by Covid. 19 on March 13, 2020, In this context, the Maciel Hospital (HM) established guidelines and recommendations to face the disease that radically modified its usual benefits. The objective of this communication is to present the surgical experience developed in the care context of a sustained phase 2 of Covid infection.19 Material and methods The surgical activity of the HM is retrospectively analyzed from its record of Operative Descriptions, during the period between 13.3.2020 and 30.4.2020 (49 days) and performs a critical analysis from the governing documents of our surgical conduct. Results: 403 cases, 149 coordination and 254 emergency were operated. 287 patients with multiple etiologies, although predominantly oncological (27%) and infectious / inflammatory processes (19%), were operated by the general and specialty surgery services. Laparoscopy involved 62 cases, 43 of which were urgent, mostly due to infectious / inflammatory pathologies: appendicitis (35%), cholecystectomies (24%), and diagnostic laparoscopies (11%). 55% of the cases underwent surgery for cancer and the rest cholecystectomies and others. Conclusions: The HM operated three times more than the rest of the public system; Even so, with respect to its usual production, the number of surgeries decreased significantly (35%), especially coordination (59%). Covid.19 positive patients were not operated. A high number of justified operations were carried out in terms of quantity and type of pathology, using the protocol for maximum protection against Covid.19 rationally, within the established sanitary guidelines and without infectious impact by the coronavirus

COVID 19 en fase 2 sostenida. Experiencia quirúrgica inicial en el Hospital Maciel

Introducción. En el Uruguay se decretó el inicio de la pandemia por Covid.19 el 13 de marzo de 2020, En este contexto el Hospital Maciel (HM) estableció pautas y recomendaciones para enfrentar la enfermedad que modificaron radicalmente sus prestaciones habituales. El objetivo de esta comunicación es presentar la experiencia quirúrgica desarrollada en el contexto asistencial de una fase 2 sostenida de infección por Covid.19 Material y métodos Se analiza en forma retrospectiva la actividad quirúrgica del HM a partir de su registro de Descripciones Operatorias, durante el periodo entre el 13.3.2020 y el 30.4.2020 ( 49 días) y realiza un análisis crítico desde los documentos rectores de nuestra conducta quirúrgica. Resultados: Se operaron 403 casos, 149 de coordinación y 254 de urgencia .Los servicios de cirugía general y especialidades operaron 287 pacientes de múltiples etiologías,v aunque predominantemente oncológicos (27%) y procesos infecciosos /inflamatorios (19%). Por laparoscopia se intervinieron 62 casos, 43 de urgencia en su mayoría por patologías infeccioso/inflamatorias: apendicitis (35 %) , colecistectomias (24%) y laparoscopias diagnosticas ( 11 %) .De coordinación se operaron 55% de los casos por cáncer y el resto colecistectomías y otros. Conclusiones: El HM opero tres veces más que el resto del sistema público; aun así, respecto a su producción habitual descendió significativamente el número de cirugías (35%), especialmente de coordinación (59 %). No se operaron pacientes Covid.19 positivos. Se realizaron un alto número de operaciones justificadas en cantidad y tipo de patología, utilizando con racionalidad el protocolo de protección máxima contra el Covid.19, dentro de las pautas sanitarias establecidas y sin impacto infectológico por el coronavirus.

Coronavirus : cerveau prédictif et gestion de la terreur

Emerging infectious diseases like Covid-19 cause a major threat to global health. When confronted with new pathogens, individuals generate several beliefs about the epidemic phenomenon. Many studies have shown that individual protective behaviors largely depend on these beliefs. Due to the absence of treatment and vaccine against these emerging pathogens, the relation between these beliefs and these behaviors represents a crucial issue for public health policies. In the premises of the Covid-19 pandemic, several preliminary studies have highlighted a delay in the perception of risk by individuals, which potentially holds back the implementing of the necessary precautionary measures: people underestimated the risks associated with the virus, and therefore also the importance of complying with sanitary guidelines. During the peak of the pandemic, the salience of the threat and of the risk of mortality could then have transformed the way people generate their beliefs. This potentially leads to upheavals in the way they understand the world. Here, we propose to explore the evolution of beliefs and behaviors during the Covid-19 crisis, using the theory of predictive coding and the theory of terror management, two influential frameworks in cognitive science and in social psychology.

Urban Burial Reform in William Wordsworth’s “Village Churchyard”

Katherine E. Blake “Urban Burial Reform in William Wordsworth’s ‘Village Churchyard’” (pp. 279–304) This essay looks at the relationship between space and class in nineteenth-century English burials in order to shed new light on William Wordsworth’s Essays upon Epitaphs (1810, 1876) and “The Brothers” (1800). While Wordsworth’s work dwells on pastoral images of burial, I argue that his representations in fact align more closely with the cultural practices and values underpinning urban burial conventions. Through his representation of burial space, Wordsworth’s work plays out urban concerns about burial in the countryside. Ultimately, this essay argues that the exportation of urban concerns to imaginary rural sites accounts for the utility of Wordsworth’s work to mid-nineteenth-century burial reformers, and particularly to Edwin Chadwick, a utilitarian known for his work on the 1832 Poor Law and sanitary guidelines for burial. By reevaluating what prior studies have said about Chadwick’s reforms in light of recent work on his economic theories, I argue that Chadwick’s citation of Wordsworth’s first “Essay upon Epitaphs” transforms the latter’s pastoral vision into an endorsement of a national cemetery. I explore the extent to which Wordsworth’s early-nineteenth-century ideas are and are not compatible with Chadwick’s mid-century reforms.

Hygienic Conditions in Butcher Shops at the City of Navirai, Brazil—An Applied Case Study

This study comprises the evaluation of the hygienic-sanitary conditions of butcher shops in the city of Naviraí, state of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. Raw meat and meat products are foods widely consumed by Brazilian citizens, which is also widely exported overseas to several regions, including Europe. Due to its composition, high water content and almost neutral pH, which favors the growth of microorganisms, meat handling requires strict hygienic and sanitary guidelines. The city of Naviraí is located in the Central region of Brazil, where beef cattle and beef and meat products are one of the main activities, both for domestic consumption as well as aiming exports. We surveyed two butcher shops by applying a checklist based on the Resolution RDC 216 of September 15, 2004, issued by the Brazilian Health Ministry. The scores were given from 0% to 100% and each surveyed item was classified as Satisfactory; Satisfactory with Restriction; or Unsatisfactory. After that, all nonconformities were pointed out and owners were instructed on how to fix them. Several items for both butcher shops were in disagreement with the cited legislation, being classified as unsatisfactory and satisfactory with restrictions. It was evidenced the need for most intensive inspection by the Sanitary Vigilance Department of the Brazilian Health Ministry, not only by applying fines and other penalties, but also with guidelines to employees and owners, since the lack of information, awareness and commitment is notorious.

ЛИКВИДАЦИЯ ЯДЕРНОГО НАСЛЕДИЯ: РАДИАЦИОННО-ГИГИЕНИЧЕСКИЕ КРИТЕРИИ БЕЗОПАСНОСТИ ДЕЗАКТИВИРОВАННЫХ УЧАСТКОВ ТЕРРИТОРИИ, ЗДАНИЙ И СООРУЖЕНИЙ

The article presents approaches to the establishment of criteria (requirements) of radiation safety to the decontaminated areas of the territory, buildings and decommissioned facilities of use of atomic energy and other types of practical activities with sources of ionizing radiation. The main directions of further use of the decontaminated areas of the territory, buildings, and constructions, including 5 scenarios of restricted and unrestricted use, are determined; the criteria of radiation safety in the term of a dose constraint of a critical group of the population in 0.3 mSv/year living or working on decontaminated objects are established; the controlled parameters of the radiation situation and their levels, as well as the list of radionuclides subject to control are justified. The article presents the values of specific activity (Bq/kg) of residual radioactive contamination of soils and materials of buildings and structures, the radiation dose to the population in which will not exceed 0.3 mSv/year. Based on the presented data, draft sanitary rules and guidelines have been developed.

Microbial Modeling and Monte Carlo Simulation to Determine Microbial Performance Criteria on Wooden Cutting Boards

This study used simulation modeling to evaluate the microbial performance over time for four types of meat and the effect on the frequency of changing cutting boards. The results revealed that pork chopping boards can be used up to time t = 9 minutes, that is, with the corresponding bacterial counts of 19 CFU/4cm2. Beef chopping boards can be changed or clean beyond the time t = 7 minutes since the bacterial growth already exceeds the standard sanitary requirement of using wooden cutting boards. On the other hand, chicken cutting boards can be used only for up to t=10 minutes out of a 20 – minute period of chopping chicken meat to meet the sanitary guidelines. Wooden cutting boards used tochop fish meat can be used for a maximum of t= 9 minutes to meet the acceptable sanitary requirement. These findings suggest that wet market meat vendors can be constrained to the allowable time in minutes of using the wooden cutting boards in order to meet the sanitary guidelines that guarantee safe meat cutting boards utilized in most wet market settings.

KONDISI SANITASI RUANG TAHANAN 01 lEMBAGA PEMASYARAKATANKELAS II A PAMEKASAN

Sanitary condition of detention cells in the correctional institution (prison) class II A of PamekasanDistrict wasnot in accordance with health requirements. This was reflected by the condition of the basic sanitary facilities.The purpose of this research was to identify the sanitary state of the detention cells in the correctionalinstitution class II A of PamekasanDistrict.This was a descriptive study using cross sectional design and it was also a field research. Data were collectedthrough observations, interviews, measurements, and laboratory tests.The result showed that the detention cells scored 197 (80%) out of a total score of 245, meaninh that theydid not met the health requirements. Several variables considered that did not satisfy the health requirementsincluded water supply, sewage disposal, and "eradtcatlon of insects. The hygienic behavior of the inmatesscored 64-68%, meaning it did not satisfy the health requirements. It can be concluded that sanitarycondition of the detention cells did satisfy the designated health requirements. The administrators of thecorrectional institution in Pamekasan need to improve condition of the sanitary facilities up to the standarddesignated in the sanitary guidelines for public places of the Ministry of Health in 1984. Inmates and otherpeople who live in the correctional institution should keep up the condition of sanitary facilities, use themproperly and enhance their hygienic behavior in the correctional institution.

102 INCLUSION OF A RECOMBINANT BOVINE TRYPSIN INTO THE IETS SANITARY PROTOCOL FOR DISINFECTION OF BOVINE EMBRYOS TO PREVENT BOVINE HERPESVIRUS 1 (BHV 1) TRANSMISSION VIA EMBRYO TRANSFER TO RECIPIENTS AND CALVES

This study dealt with the potential for introduction of infectious agents through the use of animal-derived products. The efficacy of a recombinant bovine trypsin (RBTr) as a replacement for porcine pancreatic trypsin as a disinfectant for bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1)-infected embryos was investigated according to the sanitary guidelines of the IETS. Treatment of in vivo-fertilised embryos (n = 147) contaminated with BHV-1 [105 50% tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50)/mL] in the presence of RBTr (525 U mL–1) for 120 s effectively removed the infectious virus (100%) compared with untreated and washed embryos [9/55 (16%); P &lt; 0.05]. Transfer of in vivo-fertilised and disinfected embryos to BHV-1 seronegative recipients (n = 24) resulted in 14 pregnancies and 11 calves born free of BHV-1. In contrast, transfer of unwashed/undisinfected embryos to 4 recipients resulted in seroconversion and no pregnancies at term. The same treatment applied to in vivo-fertilised contaminated embryos removed the infectious virus from all but 1 [1/100 (99%)] compared with untreated and unwashed embryos [16/28 (57%); P &lt; 0.05]. It was concluded that the use of RBTr can be considered as an alternative method of rendering embryos free of bovine herpesvirus and thus reduce the potential risk of disease transmission to embryo recipients and offspring.

Prevention of bovine herpesvirus-1 transmission by the transfer of embryos disinfected with recombinant bovine trypsin

This study deals with the potential for the introduction of infectious agents through the use of animal-derived products. The efficacy of a recombinant bovine trypsin (RBTr) as a replacement for porcine pancreatic trypsin and a disinfectant for bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1)–infected embryos was investigated according to the sanitary guidelines of the International Embryo Transfer Society. Treatment of in vivo and in vitro fertilized embryos contaminated with BHV-1 (105 TCID50/mL) in the presence of RBTr (525 U/mL) for 120 s, effectively removed the infectious virus compared with untreated and washed embryos (P < 0.05). Transfer of in vivo fertilized and disinfected embryos to BHV-1 seronegative recipients (n = 24) resulted in 14 pregnancies and 11 calves born free of BHV-1. In contrast, transfer of unwashed or undisinfected embryos to four recipients resulted in seroconversion and no pregnancies at term. It was concluded that the use of RBTr could be considered as an alternative method of rendering embryos free of BHV-1 and thus reduce the potential risk of disease transmission to embryo recipients and offspring.

ECOLOGO-HYGIENIC PRECONDITIONS AND ENGINEERING APPROACHES TO MEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT

In the article based on authentic investigation and research, the problem of medical waste management, its social, ecologo-hygienic and epidemiological urgency have been described. The dynamics of establishment and content of the national sanitary guidelines and regulations of 1999 and 2010 (co-authors of the current article participated in development of several of them) has been followed up; based on international sources, there have been considered critical comments of experts to these documents; in order to be understood clearly, some of the guidelines provisions’ versions have been updated.

Assessment of soil degradation in areas of nuclear explosions at the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site

The degree of the soil cover degradation at the Balapan and Experimental Field test sites was assessed on the basis of the Allium-test of soil toxicity and international guidelines on the radioactive restriction of solid materials (IAEA, 2004) and the environment (Smith, 2005). Large scale soil-cover degradation maps (1: 25000) were made. The main part of the mapped area contains highly contaminated toxic degraded soil. It was found that the relationship between soil toxicity and total radionuclide activity concentration is described by power functions. When the calculated value (413–415 Bq/kg of air-dried soil) increases, the soil becomes toxic to plants. This value is 7.8 times higher than the maximum value for background territories (53 Bq/kg) surrounding the SNTS. The Russian sanitary and hygienic guidelines (Radiation safety standards, 2009; Sanitary regulations of radioactive waste management, 2003) underestimate the degree of soil radioactive contamination for plants.