Airborne Particulate Matter Samples Research Articles

Air biocontamination in a variety of agricultural industry environments in Egypt: a pilot study

Inhalation of airborne microorganisms and organic dust is an occupational concern among workers in agricultural industries. Airborne microorganisms and particulate matter samples were collected from poultry house, flourmill, textile, and food industry sites by use of liquid impinger and gravimetric samplers. Particulate matter concentrations were recorded at median concentrations of 1.56, 1.92, 4.39, and 0.7 mg/m3 in the occupied poultry house, textile, flourmill, and food indoor working environments, respectively. The highest median particulate matter concentration (27.9 mg/m3) was detected at the flourmill’s stack site. The highest median indoor concentration of culturable airborne bacteria (6.23 × 105 CFU/m3) was found at the occupied poultry-house site and the lowest concentration (4.6 × 103 CFU/m3) was found at the food industry site. The highest median indoor concentration of culturable airborne fungi (3.15 × 104 CFU/m3) was found at the flourmill site whereas the lowest (1.24 × 103 CFU/m3) was found at the textile industry site. Bacillus and Staphylococcus were the predominant Gram-positive bacteria whereas Acinetobacter and Klebsiella were the predominant Gram-negative bacteria. Escherichia coli and Salmonella were only detected in the indoor air at the poultry house site. Aspergillusflavus, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium, and yeast were the predominant fungal types at flourmill, textile, food industry, and poultry house, respectively. Workers were continuously exposed to airborne microorganisms at a median value of 104 CFU/m3 in all the industries studied.

On-line determination of water-soluble zinc in airborne particulate matter using a dynamic extraction procedure coupled to flame atomic absorption spectrometry

In this work a flow injection procedure with FAAS detection for the on-line determination of water-soluble Zn in airborne particulate matter samples is presented. The method is based on a preliminary extraction of samples with water under dynamic conditions and the subsequent on-line FAAS measurement of the dissolved fraction of Zn. As compared to traditional batch-wise systems, the developed on-line extraction procedure offers enhanced sensitivity and sample throughput, reduced risk of sample contamination and the absence of metal redistribution or readsorption processes. With the use of two filter punches (diameter 9 mm) for analysis an instrumental detection limit of 2 ng Zn was obtained, which translates to a method detection limit of approximately 0.4 ng m−3 when considering the volumes of air collected per investigated aerosol sample. The reproducibility of analysis given as the relative standard deviation was 2.6% (n = 6). The procedure was applied for analysis of water-soluble Zn in aerosol samples from two urban sites in Austria. Accuracy of derived results was confirmed by analysis of the same sample set with a traditional batch-wise extraction approach as well as mass balance determination.

Resuspension of indoor aeroallergens and relationship to lung inflammation in asthmatic children

Studies have shown links between the concentration of allergens found in homes and asthma. Inhalation of allergens present in settled residential dust can occur when the dust is resuspended via human activity or air currents. Although previous studies have measured allergen concentrations in homes, the focus has been on the presence of the allergens in settled dust samples. However, the actual inhalation exposure is to airborne allergens. The relationship between the settled dust composition and suspended allergens and endotoxin and the effect of exposure of these aeroallergens to asthmatics are not well understood for species typically present indoors. In this study, settled dust and airborne particulate matter samples were collected in the homes and school classrooms of asthmatic children of ages 9 to 16 and analyzed for endotoxin and allergens including dust mite and cockroach allergen, and dog and cat dander (Der p1, Der f1, Bla g1, Can f1, and Fel d1, respectively). Concentrations of cockroach allergen were below detection limit for all samples. Measurements of the settled dust samples show higher dust mite allergen in bedroom samples than in living room samples. Concentrations of airborne endotoxin and indoor allergens were generally higher in the homes than those measured at school. Within the homes, higher concentrations of airborne allergens and endotoxin were observed in the living rooms compared to the bedrooms. Resuspension rates for endotoxin, dust mite allergen, and, cat and dog dander were estimated in this study. Calculated resuspension rates for cat dander (8.1×10−7±3.5×10−7min−1) and dust mite allergen (2.1×10−6±7.6×10−7min−1and 1.4×10−5±4.6×10−6min−1 for Der p 1 and Der f 1, respectively) were found to be higher than those for dog dander (3.1×10−7±1.3×10−7min−1) and endotoxin (3.6×10−7±1.6×10−7min−1). Markers of asthma inflammation including nitrate in exhaled breath condensate (EBC) and exhaled nitric oxide (eNO), were correlated with the concentrations of dust mite allergen (Der p 1) (Spearman r=0.598; p-value=0.068 for EBC and Spearman r=0.819; p-value=0.007 for eNO) and cat dander (Fel d 1) (Spearman r=0.917; p-value=0.0002 for EBC and Spearman r=0.697; p-value=0.054 for eNO) present in PM10 samples.

Analysis of palladium concentrations in airborne particulate matter with reductive co-precipitation, He collision gas, and ID-ICP-Q-MS

The concentration of platinum group elements (PGE) in the environment has increased significantly in the last 20 years mainly due to their use as catalysts in automotive catalytic converters. The quantitation of these metals in different environmental compartments is, however, challenging due to their very low concentrations and the presence of interfering matrix constituents when inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) is used for analysis. Previously, the research focus was on the analysis of platinum (Pt) and rhodium (Rh). However, due to the increasing use of palladium (Pd) in automotive catalytic converters, quantitation of this element in airborne particulate matter (PM) is also needed. Compared to Pt and Rh, measurements of Pd using ICP-MS are plagued by greater molecular interferences arising from elements such as copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) strontium (Sr), yttrium (Y), and zirconium (Zr). The aim of this study was to evaluate the applicability of reductive co-precipitation procedures using both mercury (Hg) and tellurium (Te) for the pre-concentration of Pd from airborne PM. Furthermore, helium (He) was tested as a collision gas for isotope dilution-inductively coupled plasma-quadrupole-mass spectrometry (ID-ICP-Q-MS) to measure Pd in the Hg and Te precipitates. Airborne PM samples (PM10) were collected from Neuglobsow (Brandenburg, north-eastern Germany) and Deuselbach (Rhineland-Palatinate, south-western Germany), considered to represent background levels, and from the city Frankfurt am Main (Hesse, Germany), a high-traffic area. Samples were first digested with aqua regia in a high-pressure asher (HPA) at 320 degrees C and 130 bar prior to the application of reductive co-precipitation procedures. The method was validated with road dust reference material BCR-723 and the CANMET-CCRMP reference material TDB-1 and WPR-1. In airborne PM collected at the background areas Neuglobsow and Deuselbach, Pd was detected with median concentrations values of 0.5 and 0.6 pg/m3, respectively. Much higher median concentration values of 14.8 pg Pd/m3 (detection limit = 0.01 pg Pd/m3) were detected in samples collected in the city of Frankfurt am Main. Results have shown that Hg co-precipitation depletes the concentrations of interfering matrix constituents by at least one order of magnitude more, compared to Te co-precipitation, making it a more effective method for the isolation and pre-enrichment of Pd from airborne PM prior to analysis. The use of a He gas flow of 120 ml/min in the plasma further minimized interferences, particularly those arising from CuAr+, YO+, and ZrO+ during the determination of Pd. The results demonstrate that Hg co-precipitation and the use of He collision gas, in combination with isotope dilution, are highly effective methods for the quantitation of Pd in airborne PM using ICP-MS.

Source Apportionment of the Atmospheric Aerosol in Lahore, Pakistan

Samples of airborne particulate matter (PM2.5) were collected at a site in Lahore, Pakistan from November 2005 to January 2006. A total of 129 samples were collected using an Andersen Reference Ambient Air Sampler 2.5-400 sampler and analyzed for major ions, trace metals, and organic and elemental carbon concentrations. The data set was then analyzed by positive matrix factorization (PMF) to identify the possible sources of the atmospheric PM collected in this urban area. Six factors reproduced the PM2.5 sample compositions with meaningful physical interpretation of the resolved factors. The sources included secondary PM, diesel emissions, biomass burning, coal combustion, two-stroke vehicle exhaust, and industrial sources. Diesel and two-stroke vehicles contributed about 36%, biomass burning about 15%, and coal combustion sources around 13% of the PM2.5 mass. Nearly two thirds of the PM2.5 mass is carbonaceous material. Secondary particles contributed about 30% of PM2.5 mass. The conditional probability function (CPF) was then used to help identify likely locations of the sources present in this area. CPF analysis point to the east and northeast, which are directions of urban and industrial areas located across the border near Amritsar, India as the most probable source for high PM2.5 concentration from diesel and two-stroke vehicles exhaust in Lahore. Analysis of those days within three different ranges of PM2.5 concentration shows that most of the measured high PM2.5 mass concentrations were driven by diesel and two-stroke vehicle emissions including the associated primary sulfate. The use of the potential source contribution function (PSCF) to find the source locations of regionally transported particles is inapplicable in situations when high PM2.5 concentrations are dominated by local sources and local meteorology.

Speciation of antimony in airborne particulate matter using ultrasound probe fast extraction and analysis by HPLC-HG-AFS

A fast extraction procedure has been developed for Sb(III) and Sb(V) oxoanions speciation in airborne particulate matter samples. Different extraction media (diammonium tartrate, hidroxilammonium clorhidrate, citric acid + ascorbic acid, phosphoric acid and citrate solutions) were tried, with assistance of an ultrasonic probe. The operation power and time of extraction were also optimized. The higher extraction recoveries were obtained with a 100 mmol L −1 hidroxilammonium clorhidrate aqueous solution assisted by the ultrasound probe operated at 50 W during 3 min. The extracts were analyzed by HPLC-HG-AFS. The chromatographic separation of Sb(III) and Sb(V) was also optimized using diammonium tartrate and phthalic acid as mobile phases. The separation of both Sb species was performed in less than 3 min under isocratic conditions, using a 200 mmol L −1 diammonium tartrate solution. The proposed extraction procedure and the HPLC-HG-AFS instrumental coupling have been successfully applied to airborne particulate matter samples, with high Sb content, collected in heavy traffic streets from Buenos Aires (Argentina). The results showed the presence of both Sb species at similar concentrations in the ng m −3 level. The extraction yield was higher than 90% for all the analyzed samples.

Size-Resolved Concentrations of Particulate Matter and Bioaerosols Inside versus Outside of Homes

Size-resolved airborne particulate matter samples (PM 2.5 , PM 10 , and TSP) collected inside ten northern California homes over four days and one night (9–12 h/sample, spanning a 3.5 week period) were analyzed for protein, endotoxin, and (1 → 3)-β-D-glucan concentrations. Some simultaneous size-resolved outdoor samples were also collected. The associations of residential characteristics and occupant behavior with the indoor airborne levels were investigated. In addition, the relation between these chemical biomarkers and the more traditional culturing approaches was studied. Most of the indoor mass concentration of airborne particles and protein was in the fine fraction (PM 2.5 ), while the mass of airborne endotoxin and (1 → 3)-β-D-glucan was mainly in the coarser fractions (PM 10–2.5 and PM TSP–10 ). No strong correlations were seen between short-term (3–6 min) culturable bacteria and fungi counts and the corresponding longer-term (9–12 h) biomarker levels. Daytime indoor levels of the biomarkers tende...

Risk assessment of inhalation exposure for airborne toxic metals using instrumental neutron activation analysis

In order to study the effects of air pollution, about 1,300 samples of airborne particulate matter (APM) were collected at suburban and industrial sites, in Daejeon, Korea from 1998 to 2006. The concentrations of carcinogenic (As and Cr) and non-carcinogenic metals (Al, Mn, and Zn) were determined by using instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA). These long-term metal concentration data were applied to a risk assessment of inhalation exposure using Monte Carlo analysis (MCA).

Source Identification of Chittagong Aerosol by Receptor Modeling

Samples of fine and coarse airborne particulate matter (PM) were collected between February and July 2007 at the Continuous Air Monitoring Station (CAMS) in Chittagong, the second largest city in Bangladesh. Samples were collected using a dichotomous sampler in two fractions of <2.5 μm (fine) and 2.5 to 10 μm (coarse). Samples were analyzed for elemental concentrations by proton induced X-ray emission (PIXE), hydrogen by proton elastic scattering analysis (PESA), and black carbon by reflectometry. Elemental data sets together with black carbon were analyzed by positive matrix factorization to identify the possible sources of mass for the coarse and fine PM fractions. Best solutions were found to be six and seven factors for elemental compositions for coarse and fine fractions at the CAMS at Chittagong, respectively. Sources were identified as biomass burning/brick kiln, soil dust, road dust, Zn source (including two-stroke motorcycles), motor vehicle, CNG vehicle, and sea salt. The PMF results show that about 35.5% of PM2.5 mass at this site comes from biomass burning. The second largest contribution of fine PM comes from motor vehicle including CNG vehicles. The third one is a Zn source that includes emissions from two-stroke vehicles and galvanizing factories with vehicles, probably the larger contributor of the two source types. In case of coarse PM, about 40% of PM2.5–10 mass comes from soil dust including road dust.

Source Apportionment of Fine (PM1.8) and Ultrafine (PM0.1) Airborne Particulate Matter during a Severe Winter Pollution Episode

Size-resolved samples of airborne particulate matter (PM) collected during a severe winter pollution episode at three sites in the San Joaquin Valley of California were extracted with organic solvents and analyzed for detailed organic compounds using GC-MS. Six particle size fractions were characterized with diameter (Dp) < 1.8 microm; the smallest size fraction was 0.056 < Dp < 0.1 microm which accounts for the majority of the mass in the ultrafine (PM0.1) size range. Source profiles for ultrafine particles developed during previous studies were applied to the measurements at each sampling site to calculate source contributions to organic carbon (OC) and elemental carbon (EC) concentrations. Ultrafine EC concentrations ranged from 0.03 microg m(-3) during the daytime to 0.18 microg m(-3) during the nighttime. Gasoline fuel, diesel fuel, and lubricating oil combustion products accounted for the majority of the ultrafine EC concentrations, with relatively minor contributions from biomass combustion and meat cooking. Ultrafine OC concentrations ranged from 0.2 microg m(-3) during the daytime to 0.8 microg m(-3) during the nighttime. Wood combustion was found to be the largest source of ultrafine OC. Meat cooking was also identified as a significant potential source of PM0.1 mass but further study is required to verify the contributions from this source. Gasoline fuel, diesel fuel, and lubricating oil combustion products made minor contributions to PM0.1 OC mass. Total ultrafine particulate matter concentrations were dominated by contributions from wood combustion and meat cooking during the current study. Future inhalation exposure studies may wish to target these sources as potential causes of adverse health effects.

Desenvolvimento e aplicação de método GC-MS/MS para análise simultânea de 17 HPAs em material particulado atmosférico

Os hidrocarbonetos policíclicos aromáticos (HPAs) estão associados ao aumento da incidência de diversos tipos de cânceres no homem. Essas moléculas são formadas principalmente na queima incompleta de matéria orgânica, sendo encontradas em todos os compartimentos ambientais. Órgãos regulamentadores das áreas ambiental e de saúde ocupacional consideram 17 HPAs como contaminantes atmosféricos prioritários. Este trabalho apresenta um método para análise simultânea destes HPAs utilizando-se a cromatografia a gás acoplada à espectrometria de massas operando no modo tandem (GC-MS/MS). Os limites de detecção e quantificação do método mostraram-se até 5 vezes inferiores aos obtidos no método GC-MS (SCAN). O método mostrou-se seletivo para análise de HPAs em extratos de amostras de material particulado atmosférico. Uma análise comparativa de dois sistemas de solventes (diclorometano/metanol 4:1 v/v e hexano/acetona 1:1 v/v) para a extração de HPAs, utilizando amostras de material particulado atmosférico, revelou que ambas as misturas de solventes possuem poder de extração semelhante. Os resultados sugerem que é possível realizar extração de HPAs de material particulado atmosférico em ultra-som com a mistura hexano/acetona (1:1), que é menos tóxica em relação à mistura diclorometano/metanol (4:1), bastante utilizada nestas análises, sem perdas significativas na exatidão do método.

Air pollution monitoring of an urban dust in Daejeon city, Korea by using instrumental neutron activation analysis

For air pollution monitoring, about 1300 airborne particulate matter samples were collected by using a low volume air sampler and a polycarbonate filter at two sampling sites in an urban region, Daejeon, the middle of Korea from 2003 to 2006. Mass concentrations of the black carbon were measured using a smoke stain reflectometer. The concentrations of 24 elements in the collected samples were analyzed by using instrumental neutron activation analysis, and its temporal trends and enrichment factors were investigated under different environmental conditions. Analytical control was carried out by using certified reference materials.

Indoor air pollution from particulate matter emissions in different households in rural areas of Bangladesh

Indoor air pollution from the combustion of traditional biomass fuels (wood, cow dung, and crop wastes) is a significant public health problem predominantly for poor populations in many developing countries. It is particularly problematic for the women who are normally responsible for food preparation and cooking, and for infants/young children who spend time around their mothers near the cooking area. Airborne particulate matter (PM) samples were collected from cooking and living areas in homes in a rural area of Bangladesh to investigate the impact of fuel use, kitchen configurations, and ventilation on indoor air quality and to apportion the source contributions of the measured trace metals and BC concentrations. Lower PM concentrations were observed when liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) was used for cooking. PM concentrations varied significantly depending on the position of kitchen, fuel use and ventilation rates. From reconstructed mass (RCM) calculations, it was found that the major constituent of the PM was carbonaceous matter. Soil and smoke were identified as components from elemental composition data. It was also found that some kitchen configurations have lower PM concentrations than others even with the use of low-grade biomass fuels. Adoption of these kitchen configurations would be a cost-effective approach in reducing exposures from cooking in these rural areas.

The Use of Source Apportionment for Air Quality Management and Health Assessments

Receptor modeling is the application of data analysis methods to elicit information on the sources of air pollutants. Typically, it employs methods of solving the mixture resolution problem using chemical composition data for airborne particulate matter (PM) samples. In such cases, the outcome is the identification of the pollution source types and estimates of the contribution of each source type to the observed concentrations. Receptor modeling also involves efforts to identify the locations of the sources through the use of local meteorology or ensembles of air parcel back trajectories. Compositional data were collected in a number of monitoring programs. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency deployed a network of urban airborne PM samplers to provide PM2.5 composition data for urban centers across the United States. In addition, advanced monitoring methods were deployed at “supersites.” These data show the differences in composition in different part of the country and were also used to identify and apportion the particle sources. These results were used to (1)develop effective and efficient air quality management plans and (2) refine emission inventories for input into deterministic models to predict changes in air quality as the result of the implementation of various management plans. The apportionments also serve as exposure estimates for health effects models to identify those components of the PM that are most closely related to observed adverse health effects. Although current regulations target total airborne mass concentrations, such health effects results might result in targeting those sources that are most likely linked to adverse health effects and thus produce the maximum health benefit.

Ions species size distribution in particulate matter associated with VOCs and meteorological conditions over an urban region

Airborne particulate matter (PM 10, PM 2.5, PM 1) and volatile organic compounds (benzene, toluene, m,p-xylene, o-xylene) samples were collected during winter and summer seasons of 2005 at two sites, representing an urban and a suburban region of the Greater Athens Area. Urban site traffic emissions were the major contributor to the concentration of PM 2.5, PM 10, toluene, and xylenes, while benzene and PM 1 concentrations were presented in significant spatial variations. K +, Na +, Mg 2+, Ca 2+, NO 3 - , Cl − and SO 4 2 - ions were analyzed for the chemical characterization of the collected PM samples. The results showed that Na + cations and SO 4 2 - anions were the dominant species, during winter and summer, respectively, in both sites. The analysis of the synoptic scale and mesoscale atmospheric circulation during the experimental periods demonstrated that the meteorological conditions play a key role, not only in the variation but also in the distribution of the ionic concentrations at the three fractions of particulates and the dominant character (alkaline/acidic/neutral) of the particulates at the two sampling sites.

Characterization of atmospheric aerosol particles in a mountainous region in northern Japan

In order to shed light on the long-range transport of atmospheric pollutants in the Northeast Asian Regions, we studied a multi-probe, chemical characterization and composition profile of airborne particulate matter (PM) on Mt. Moriyoshi (altitude 1454 m), located on the Sea of Japan side of northern Honshu, Japan. Sampling of size-resolved airborne PM was carried out on Juhyou-Daira (west side near the summit, altitude 1167 m) from February 1–16 (winter period) and July 7–19 (summer period) in 2004. Concentrations of several elemental and ionic species in each size-resolved PM sample were determined by particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) and ion chromatography analysis. From the winter period, results suggested that PM was formed from soil and sea salt particle sizes of PM 10–PM 2.5 and from ammonium sulfate particles, secondary particles < PM 1.0. However from the summer period, results suggested that PM was formed from soil and sea salt particles > PM 10–PM 2.5 and secondary particles < PM 1.0. With the aid of SEM-EDX analysis, many cubic particles were observed throughout the winter and summer periods. In particular, particles < PM 1.0 were almost all cubic particles. Small spherical particles were mainly detected in PM 10–PM 2.5 and PM 2.5–PM 1.0 categories of the winter period. These cubic and small spherical particles were the silicon-rich type.

EVALUATION OF FINE AIRBORNE PARTICULATE MATTER AT TOLUCA, ESTADO DE MEXICO, USING PIXE

Fine airborne particulate matter (FAPM) samples were collected at an urban site (19° 17' 33.47" N, 99° 38' 50.55" W and 2670 m asl) in Toluca, the capital city of the State of Mexico. The samples, a total of 143, were collected every third day from March 2006 to April 2007 on Teflon® filters, with 24 h time resolution, using an U.S. EPA designation BGI PQ200 air sampler. The PIXE elemental analysis revealed the presence and the mass concentrations of 18 elements (S, Cl, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Br, Rb, Sr and Pb), thirteen of which (S, Cl, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, As) were consistently detected in most of the samples, and five of them (Se, Br, Rb, Sr and Pb) appeared occasionally. So, only those consistently detected were considered significant for the analysis. In order to verify whether the fine particulate concentrations complied with the FAPM Mexican Official Standard of 65 µg/m3, the filters were weighed before and after the sampling using a Cahn™ 33 microbalance with a 0.1 µg resolution, following the EPA procedures. The one year study was divided into three parts in accordance with the three climatic seasons identified in the city: dry-cold, dry-hot and rainy seasons. Results on the elemental and mass concentrations, as well as seasonal and time variations are presented. Correlations between concentrations of pairs of elements were also calculated, and the results obtained were found in good agreement with the enrichment factors determined for each season. Some pollution sources are suggested based on the analysis performed on the database and also from information obtained in a wide survey of the area. This paper presents the results of the first assessment of atmospheric pollution in this size of particle in this important city.

Chemical fractionation of heavy metals in airborne particulate matter (PM10) by sequential extraction procedure

In this study, a series of 36 airborne particulate matter (PM10) samples were colleted over a 1 year period at an urban area–Tirupati, India. The samples were collected on paliflex-filters using Mini-Partisol air sampler equipped with PM10 inlet. A three stage sequential extraction procedure viz. environmentally mobile, bound to carbonates and oxides and bound to silicates and organic matter, was applied to heavy metals such as Pb, Cd, Zn, and Cu in PM10 samples. The heavy metals were determined by differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry (DPASV). The reliability and applicability of the method was checked by using, NIST Standard Reference Material (SRM 1648). Good agreement was obtained between the total concentration of studied metals after three-step leaching procedure and certified values. Speciation results shows that higher percentage of Pb and Cd are accumulated in mobile fraction, where as higher amount of Cu and Zn was found in environmentally immobile fraction. Multivariate statistical analysis has been performed for the variables to define possible sources, and the results shows that mainly two sources, particles from traffic and particles from land were identified.

Ion chromatographic and spectrometric determination of water-soluble compounds in airborne particulates, and their correlations in an industrial area in Attica, Greece

In the time period from June 2005 to May 2006 in 42 sampling campaigns 84 filter samples of airborne particulate matter, coarse (PM10–2.5) and fine (PM2.5), were collected using a Gent stacked filter unit in the coastal industrial area of Aspropyrgos in Attica, Greece. The average PM10 (PM10–2.5 + PM2.5) concentration was found to be 66 µg · m−3, exceeding more than 1.6 times the annual limit of 40 µg · m−3. The samples were analysed for Cl−, NO3−, SO42−, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+ and NH4+ using ion chromatography. The data were compared with results obtained with other spectrometric methods, such as inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry, atomic absorption spectrometry, energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence and reflectometry. The determined average ionic content comprised about 44% of the PM10 mass. The ionic composition, as well as the possible matrix compounds in both fractions were evaluated by dividing the sampling period into summer and winter season. In the PM10–2.5/PM2.5 fraction in summer time the concentrations of Ca2+, Mg2+ and NO3− were enriched in the coarse fraction. In winter time all species were enriched in the coarse fraction, especially Ca2+, Cl− and NO3−. NH4+ was constantly higher in the fine fraction in summer as well as in winter time. Factor analysis was applied to obtain correlations between cations and anions leading to matrix compounds in both fractions. From the evaluation of the results obtained, some of the local air pollution sources could be identified.

Source apportionment for urban PM10 and PM2.5 in the Beijing area

Airborne particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) samples were collected at the Beijing Normal University sampling site in the urban area of Beijing, China in dry and wet seasons during 2001–2004. Concentrations of 23 elements and 14 ions in particulate samples were determined by ICP-AES and IC, respectively. Source apportionment results derived from both Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) and Chemical Mass Balance (CMB) models indicate that the major contributors of PM2.5 and PM10 in Beijing are: soil dust, fossil fuel combustion, vehicle exhausts, secondary particulate, biomass burning and some industrial sources. We have identified both regional common sources, such as vehicular emissions, particulate of secondary origin and biomass burning, as well as country-specific problems, such as sand storms and soil dust that should be addressed for effective air quality control.