Sambar Deer Research Articles (Page 1)

In India, the sambardeer (Rusa unicolor), barking deer ( Muntiacus muntjak), spotted deer (Axis axis), and Indian mouse deer (Moschiola indica, Artiodactyla: Tragulidae) are widely distributed. Deer are often poached for bush meat, skin, antlers and other purposes. The mitochondrial genome is essential for species identification and understanding evolutionary relationships. Therefore, sequencing the complete mitochondrial genome of deer species is vital for rapid species identification and conservation efforts. This study aimed to sequence the complete mitochondrial genomes of spotted and sambar deer using Next-Generation Sequencing technology. The results revealed the size of the complete mitochondrial genome (mt-DNA) of spotted deer (16,351 bp) and sambar deer (16,476 bp), respectively. Each mt-DNA encompassed 37 genes viz 13 Protein coding genes (PCGs), 22 tRNA, 2 rRNA, and a control region. The comparative analysis of mitochondrial nucleotide composition between Axis and Rusa species revealed closely similar ratios of A + T and G + C. Two complementary approaches (Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian Inference) were used to understand the phylogenetic relationship among Cervidae. The results indicated that the A. axis consistently formed a well-supported clade with bootstrap values of 100 and posterior probabilities of 1.000, which were closely related to A. porcinus and formed a sister group. R. unicolor, both trees showed strong support for its placement within a clade that included Rusa species and R. unicolor subspecies. The divergence times estimation analysis exhibited that the A. axis and A. porcinus divergence occurred around 3.38 MYA, suggesting a split during the late Miocene to early Pliocene. The clade containing R. unicolor (including R. unicolor subspecies) diverged approximately 3.7 MYA. These results suggested a relatively recent divergence, indicating ongoing speciation events within this group. In summary, our findings provide a new perspective on understanding Axis and Rusa species, which will not only be beneficial for species conservation but also open up new possibilities for forensic analysis.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-24310-2.

ABSTRACTNatural ecosystems are constantly damaged by natural or man‐made disasters. The restoration of damaged natural ecosystems is a systematic and intricate process. Wildlife feces can facilitate seed dispersal for plants and also influence soil properties and health. Soil restoration is the basis and prerequisite for the restoration of damaged ecosystems, and wildlife defecation is a key link for plant–animal–soil material turnover and nutrient cycling. Therefore, investigation of the effects of wildlife feces on soil properties and microbiota holds great significance for ecosystem restoration. To better understand the role of wildlife feces in the recovery of damaged natural ecosystems, we continuously monitored the areas destroyed by the 2008 earthquake for 15 years with a special focus on the feces of sambar (Rusa unicolor). Sambar shows the highest frequency of occurrence in the monitoring areas. We evaluated the effects of sambar feces on soil properties and microbial composition and function based on the feces‐to‐soil ratio obtained from field surveys (i.e., 0.14%). We found that the sambar feces changed multiple physical and chemical properties of soil; for example adding the 0.14% and 1.4% sambar feces to soil reduced the soil pH by 5.48% and 6.85%. PCoA results showed that adding sambar feces to soil significantly changed the composition of soil microbiota and reduced the diversity and abundance of soil bacteria in the short term. RDA exhibited that the pH, NO3−‐N, C/N, and TN concentrations were the key physicochemical factors that significantly affect microbial diversity and composition. FAPROTAX predictions revealed that a high concentration of sambar feces (1.4%) would significantly increase the relative abundance of aerobic chemoheterotrophy and chemoheterotrophy (p < 0.05). Our study reveals the mechanisms by which wildlife feces affect soil restoration in damaged natural ecosystems. Because unpredictable disasters are ubiquitous worldwide, providing guidance for ecosystem restoration is of particular importance.

Cyanobacteria toxicosis was diagnosed in an enclosure of sambar deer (Rusa unicolor) in Wildlife Breeding Park, Jallo-Zoo, Lahore, Pakistan. Microscopic examination of pond water and feces from inside of the deer enclosure revealed Microcystis aeruginosa. Clinical findings in seven sambar deer included muscle tremors, dysentery, melena, and enteritis. Necropsy findings revealed froth in trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles (indicative of pulmonary edema) in five of the seven deer. The liver was congested and firm in consistency, and its margins were round. Healed ulcers were found on the tongue and dental pad in one of the dead sambar deer. Linear hemorrhages, mild congestion, and ulceration at the junction of abomasum and duodenum and multifocal poorly demarcated ulcers in duodenal mucosa were noted in five deer. In the large intestine, there was acute diffuse fibrino-hemorrhagic enteritis in four infected carcasses. Isolation and identification tests of the liver and intestine were negative for Clostridium spp. Mouse bioassay revealed mortality, intestinal hemorrhages, and hepatitis. Peracute mortality of seven sambar deer by consuming algae-contaminated water in a breeding herd is a major concern in zoo enclosures in Pakistan.

Indian agriculture is facing growing challenge from the higher vertebrate pests as they cause widespread damage to agricultural crops and thereby affect the food security of the country. Crop raiding by different wild animals particularly, Monkeys (Macaca sp.); Hanuman langur (Presbytis entellus), Elephant (Elephas maximus), Blue bull (Boselaphus tragocamelus), Sambar deer (Cervus unicolor), Black buck (Antilope cervicapra), Chinkara (Gazellaga zellabennetti), Wild boar (Sus scrofa), peacock/parakeets, porcupine (Hystrix indica) etc. has been widely reported from all over the country (Agrawal et al., 2016). Wild boars and nilgai are responsible for large scale crop damages annually in some states like Bihar, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh (Manral et al., 2016). Despite having tremendous impact on agricultural productivity and rural livelihoods, their management is still constraint by legal, socio-cultural, weak institutional coordination, and a lack of effective, science-based interventions. This article highlights the current management strategies, identifies the critical constraints and presents the acceptable solutions.

This study aimed to identify the physiological status and morphometric characteristics of Sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) to develop optimal management strategies at UPTD Breeding Center for Livestock and Forage Crops, Penajam Paser Utara Regency. The research involved 8 male and 15 female deer, examining key parameters including rectal temperature, pulse rate, respiratory rate, body length, hip width, head length, head width, and ear length. Data were analyzed descriptively using Microsoft Excel to calculate means and standard deviations. Results revealed the following measurements rectal temperature, pulse rate, respiratory rate, body length, hip width, head length, head width, ear length for males and females respectively 39,66±0,17; 94,53±2,96; 64,4±5,60; 39,66±0,17°C; 74,26±2,56; 19,27±0,84; 24,73±0,77; 11,73±0,41; 12,6±0,27 cm dan 39,55±0,11; 88,55±1,31; 56,35±4,02°C; 81,75±1,56; 20,6±0,56; 26,4±0,41; 10,95±0,19; 12,45±0,32 cm. The findings indicate elevated physiological parameters (rectal temperature, pulse and respiratory rates) coupled with relatively small morphometric measurements. These results suggest the need for improved husbandry practices and optimized management strategies to enhance deer welfare and productivity at the breeding center

Abstract The tiger Panthera tigris is an apex predator categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. The availability of sufficient prey is a key requirement for its survival. The tiger diet landscape refers to a dynamic ecological picture of the diverse prey species consumed by tigers in a specific region, reflecting the complex relationships between tiger populations and their prey. It can provide information on the tiger’s preferred prey as well as the conservation status of prey species across boundaries. To draw up a road map for the conservation and management of tigers across the Indian subcontinent, where the Bengal tiger Panthera tigris tigris occurs, we identified which prey species make up the majority of the tiger’s diet and answered questions relating to prey density, distribution and conservation status. We reviewed 48 studies published over 30 years (1992–2022) on tiger diet and prey availability. We recorded c. 30 mammalian prey species, with chital Axis axis, sambar Rusa unicolor, wild boar Sus scrofa, Tarai gray langur Semnopithecus hector, northern red muntjac Muntiacus vaginalis and domestic livestock contributing c. 90% of the total relative biomass consumed. Nearly half of the prey species are of conservation concern (categorized as Near-Threatened, Vulnerable or Endangered on the IUCN Red List), and 11 prey species are listed on CITES Appendix I. As part of a sustainable tiger conservation road map, we suggest that the tiger’s major prey species should be incorporated into government protection schemes.

ABSTRACTCharacterising body and reproductive morphometry and their association with epididymal sperm quality can contribute to the conservation of sambar deer (Rusa unicolor). Five adult males maintained in captivity at the Getúlio Vargas Zoobotanical Park (Salvador, BA, Brazil) were captured, anaesthetised, and subjected to bilateral orchiectomy as part of a population‐control strategy. Body measurements included head circumference, thoracic diameter, total length, withers height, and body weight. The length, width, thickness, and weight of the testes and epididymides were measured, and the gonadosomatic index was estimated. Spermatozoa were recovered from the epididymal tail by slicing and flotation, and their morphology, membrane integrity, and kinematic parameters were assessed using a computerised computer‐assisted semen analysis (CASA) system. Mean kinematic parameters were: total motility (80.61% ± 18.33%), progressive motility (54.95% ± 16.55%), average path velocity—VAP (60.58 ± 12.38 μm/s), and percentage of normal spermatozoa (77.80% ± 6.14%). Withers height showed significant positive correlations (p < 0.05) with most reproductive parameters, including testicular weight (r = 0.936), testicular volume (r = 0.936), testicular area (r = 0.878), epididymal thickness (r = 0.882), total sperm recovered (r = 0.939), progressive motility (r = 0.888), and percentage of normal spermatozoa (r = 0.968). Additionally, testicular volume, thickness, epididymal length, epididymal width, and epididymal thickness showed significant positive correlations (p < 0.05) with most of the sperm parameters studied. These findings provide important preliminary data for future investigations on the reproductive potential of this species.

ABSTRACT Wildlife corridors play a vital role in maintaining isolated populations and preserving ecosystem functionality. From February to May 2023, we conducted a camera trap study in Atei Reserve Forest, a key corridor linking Similipal and Satkosia Tiger Reserves in Odisha, India. Over 3214 trap-nights at 53 camera stations, we recorded 25 mammal species, including seven species that are threatened according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN): tiger (Panthera tigris), leopard (P. pardus), sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), gaur (Bos gaurus), sambar (Rusa unicolor), and four-horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis). The jungle cat (Felis chaus) was the most frequently photo-captured species, while the four-horned antelope had the widest distribution. These findings provide crucial insights for conservation planning to ensure safe wildlife movement through the corridor.

ABSTRACTAustralia's invasive deer populations continue to expand in abundance and distribution, yet there is limited information on their movement patterns and habitat preferences. This inhibits the prioritisation of areas for control and conservation protection. We tracked 20 fallow deer (Dama dama), 5 red deer (Cervus elaphus), and 14 sambar deer (Rusa unicolor) to characterise their seasonal movement and habitat preferences in alpine and sub‐alpine southeastern Australia. Autocorrelated kernel density estimated annual home ranges (km2 ± SE) averaged 226.9 ± 54.3 for male, and 55.1 ± 46.5 for female fallow deer, 70.2 ± 35.5 for female red deer, and 25.3 ± 4.0 for male, and 80.7 (one individual) for female sambar deer. Red and sambar deer were mainly restricted to eucalyptus forest/woodland (97% of fixes for sambar, 92% for red) and native grassland (2% of fixes for sambar; 8% for red). Fallow deer, however, were more generalist, and used comparatively less eucalypt forest/woodland (73%), spending more time in cleared areas (14%), and native grasslands (13%). Seasonal resource selection functions (RSFs) showed that, relative to eucalypt forest/woodland, fallow deer preferred cleared land for all seasons except summer, heathland for all seasons except winter, and inland aquatic areas in summer. All species tended to inhabit higher elevations in summer (average: 1517 m ASL for fallow; 1709 m ASL for red; 1463 m ASL for sambar), and lower elevations in winter (average: 1344 m ASL for fallow; 1483 m ASL for red; 1102 m ASL for sambar). Additionally, seasonal RSFs showed that red deer exhibited a preference for higher elevations within their available range in every season except winter, when they preferred lower elevations. Of concern, we found that sambar deer showed a preference for previously burnt areas in autumn (53% of fixes) and spring (89% of fixes), preferring areas with low to moderate and high‐severity fire damage. Prioritising areas for control and conservation should be informed by deer movement and habitat preferences, and differences in such preferences between the three species studied herein suggest the need for tailored approaches for control to be effective in reducing their numbers and impacts on ecosystems.

ABSTRACTIntroduced deer are threatening Australia's natural values. Deer control is increasingly being implemented to reduce deer populations and mitigate their impacts. However, control programmes are expensive and challenging, particularly in peri‐urban and agricultural landscapes. We present assessments of three typical deer control programmes from peri‐urban/agricultural Victoria, south‐eastern Australia. We assess programme effectiveness in reducing deer activity by using faecal pellet counts and/or camera traps, provide reflections from researchers and land managers on the potential reasons for programme successes, or lack thereof and highlight potential changes in programme strategies to improve outcomes. Ground‐shooting by volunteer and/or contractor shooters removed primarily sambar (Cervus unicolor) in two programmes (Tarago State Forest, 2022–2023; and Jumping Creek catchment, 2017–2022), and both sambar and fallow deer (Dama dama) from the third programme (Yellingbo Nature Conservation Reserve, 2014–2019). In general, the deer control programmes did not reduce deer activity or impacts. Deer control was often too spatially restricted, and the frequency or intensity was insufficient to remove an adequate number of deer to reduce overall activity and subsequent impacts. Deer populations also often moved away from locations subject to control. Deer control is particularly difficult in fragmented peri‐urban and agricultural landscapes due to deer immigration and emigration, and the logistical challenges of operating in a multi‐tenure environment. To be effective, programmes need to be applied at appropriate spatial scales, monitored and adaptively managed. Community consultation and engagement is essential in peri‐urban and agricultural areas to enable coordinated control across different land tenures, supported by adequate resourcing. Monitoring is critical to determine control effectiveness and enable programmes to be adaptively managed. Building on the successful collaborations and lessons learnt from previous control programmes, future programmes need to be more strategic and well‐resourced to enable land managers to tackle the increasing threat posed by introduced deer in Australia.

The Kawal Tiger Reserve, situated in the northern part of Telangana state with connecting patches to Maharashtra, boasts a diverse array of large herbivore mammals. Among these are the Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), Sambar (Rusa unicolor), Chital (Axis axis), Chinkara (Gazella bennettii), Chausingha (Tetracerus quadricornis), wild boar (Sus scrofa), and the Indian gaur (Bos gaurus). These species contribute significantly to the reserve's ecological richness, displaying unique adaptations within the dry deciduous forest ecosystem. The region experiences notable shifts with the seasons, particularly after autumn when many plants shed leaves, leaving only a limited number retaining foliage in summer. This creates challenges in food availability for herbivores, compounded by the fact that not all green plants are edible for them. Our study focused on understanding the intricate dynamics of food resource sharing among these large herbivore mammals during the summer season. We identified 28 edible plant species in the reserve during summer, highlighting the resilience of certain vegetation and its importance in sustaining herbivorous populations. By studying dietary preferences and resource partitioning, we discerned patterns of resource utilization and overlap among herbivores. Utilizing niche analysis and diet overlap calculations, we quantified the degree of dietary overlap between different pairs of large herbivores. Contrary to expectations of intense competition due to limited food resources, we observed a significant degree of resource partitioning among herbivores. This phenomenon allows species to coexist by utilizing different portions of available resources, thereby reducing direct competition. For instance, species like Sambar (Rusa unicolor) prefer browse species such as Acacia and Ziziphus, while Chital (Axis axis) shows a preference for grass species like Cynodon and Iselimalaxum. Such differential utilization contributes to the stability and coexistence of herbivore populations in the reserve. Our analysis also revealed relatively low levels of diet overlap between different pairs of large herbivores, indicating evolved mechanisms that mitigate direct competition. These mechanisms include dietary specialization, temporal and spatial resource partitioning, and behavioral adaptations. Understanding these complex ecological dynamics is crucial for effectively managing and conserving biodiversity-rich ecosystems like the Kawal Tiger Reserve. Our study provides valuable insights into the mechanisms that drive coexistence and adaptation among large herbivores, aiding in the formulation of effective conservation strategies for long-term sustainability and promoting the health of wildlife habitats.

ABSTRACTInvertebrate‐derived DNA (iDNA) has been successfully utilized for surveying mammalian biodiversity in several ecosystems. Yet, as with all sampling methods, this approach suffers from potential biases, including those introduced by the choice of invertebrate sampler, as well as the stochasticity of DNA amplification during PCR. Occupancy modeling is a statistical framework that can help account for imperfect detections in sampling and can be used to improve iDNA surveys. Using a case study based on the DNA screened from the blood meals of leeches, we demonstrate how multiscale occupancy models can be applied to the molecular detection of vertebrates to reveal the nuances in iDNA detections. Leeches were collected across a habitat degradation gradient in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, in 2015 and 2016. We estimated three probabilities describing the occupancy, availability, and detection of three abundant mammals (bearded pig, muntjac and sambar deer) and compared how these values were impacted by environmental and technical covariates. For 2015, we found that null models without covariates revealed no clear differences in each of the three probabilities across taxa. However, in 2016, although the taxa have comparable occupancy, deviations occurred in the other two probabilities, with the sambar deer showing the lowest availability and muntjac with the lowest detection probability. Univariate models constructed for each taxon and year revealed differential impacts of the covariates; for example, a strong positive effect of DNA concentration on the detection of sambar deer and bearded pig was seen in 2016 only. Finally, our estimation of the minimum numbers of biological and technical replicates highlights the important trade‐off between achieving high probabilities of availability and detection and realistic amounts of sampling. Our results showcase the use of occupancy models for leech‐iDNA biodiversity surveys but highlight the potential effects of sample type, methodological design, and sample size.

Kanan Pendari Zoo is situated in Bilaspur of Chhattisgarh. This Zoological Garden is extended over 114 hectares of land. The garden is covered with dry and deciduous flora. The garden was established to conserve the wildlife species which were put under different schedules of Wildlife Protection Act-1972. The garden harbors distinct varieties of flora and fauna. The zoo was established in 2004-2005.The zoo belongs more than 50 species of animals. The present study was undertaken to examine the breeding behavior of some captive ungulates in Kanan Pendari Zoo of Bilaspur Chhattisgarh. The results on breeding behavior of Axis axis, Cervus unicolor, and Antilope cervicapra was determined and it was found that the major breeding behavior like smelling, flehmen, scratching, rutting, conflict, mounting, chasing, and courtship were reported. Several earlier studies carried out in India on wild ungulates are descriptive and have not been able to justify quantitative behavioral responses. The general and breeding behavioral responses were analyzed for a prolonged time period of a day, continuously during different seasons for two years enabling to understand the whole story of origin of stress, production of stress induced behavioral response and consequences of these immediate changes over a period of time noted as alterations of general and breeding biology associated behavioral characteristic. Quantitative categorization in terms of time activity budgeting critically compared the activities of animals during day and night through different seasons. In India, the ungulates in captivity have been studied very less for comprehensive behavioral character analysis during different seasons. Earlier studies were carried out at least two decades before when in most of the Indian zoos, the animal population size was comparatively low, the cages were small and simple and the role of behavioral science in captive conservation and management was not much understood. Although, these studies also aimed at focusing the management necessities, somehow it was not achieved in the context of its length and breadth of applicability.

Habitat fragmentation threatens biodiversity, making wildlife corridors vital for maintaining ecological connectivity. This study evaluated the functionality of three corridors—Chilla-Motichur, Teenpani, and Laltappar—in and around Rajaji National Park, Uttarakhand, India. We deployed camera traps at these corridors and surrounding forest areas for 8,198 trap nights to monitor the wildlife use of the corridors. We recorded 17 species of wild animals in the connected forested area and nine within the corridors. The Wild Pig Sus scrofa and Sambar Rusa unicolor were the most frequently captured species, with the highest Relative Abundance Index (RAI) in the Teenpani corridor. Activity patterns of wild species showed changes in the corridor compared to forest areas. Chital Axis axis exhibited continuous activity in corridors but an early-morning peak in forests (Δ = 0.68). Asiatic Elephant Elephas maximus shifted from daytime activity in forests to nocturnal peaks in corridors, likely avoiding human presence (Δ = 0.48). Sambar avoided daytime activity in the corridor compared to activity in the forest (Δ = 0.55), while Wild Pig maintained nocturnal peaks across both habitats (Δ = 0.71). Human activity, primarily diurnal, overlapped with Chital (Δ = 0.61) and increased potential encounters with Elephants and Leopards during evening hours (Δ = 0.25 and 0.39, respectively). Mitigation measures, such as habitat restoration and managing anthropogenic activities, are crucial for strengthening corridor functionality. The recent reintroduction of tigers in western Rajaji underscores the importance of these corridors for species connectivity and genetic exchange. This study provides valuable insights into managing wildlife corridors in human-dominated landscapes, highlighting their role in biodiversity conservation.

Abstract. Meeamnart B, Pakpian S, Khongmueang J, Kamsudsang P, Paansri P, Duengkae P, Suksavate W. 2025. Environmental influence on the spatial abundance of tiger prey monitored using camera traps in Thap Lan and Pang Sida National Parks, Thailand. Biodiversitas 26: 1500-1511. The decline in prey populations within the Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai Forest Complex (DPKY), Thailand, has likely contributed to the local extinction of tigers, raising urgent concerns about the future of this iconic species in the region. Environmental factors play a crucial role in the fluctuations in prey densities. This study estimated the spatial density of five key tiger prey species (gaur, banteng, sambar deer, muntjac, and wild boar) using the Random Encounter and Staying Time (REST) and Royle-Nichols (RN) occupancy models. The REST model produced density estimates of 1.05±0.35, 0.01±0.11, 0.62±0.79, 1.10±0.49, and 1.46±0.38 individuals/km² for gaur, banteng, sambar deer, muntjac, and wild boar, respectively. The RN model yielded slightly higher estimates: 1.51±1.26, 0.05±0.14, 0.82±0.58, 2.62±1.25, and 3.06±1.74 individuals/km². These findings highlight the significant influence of variables like vegetation cover, proximity to human settlements, elevation, and salt licks on prey abundance and distribution, with muntjac and wild boar consistently showing higher densities than other species. This spatial modeling approach provides a novel framework for predicting animal density, which can inform conservation and management strategies for tiger prey populations in DPKY, thereby aiding in tigers' persistence within these protected areas.

Evaluating the efficacy of an integrated law enforcement approach to safeguarding Sumatran tigers and their prey.

Behavioral response of Bornean ungulates, including bearded pigs and sambar deer, to anthropogenic disturbance in Sabah, Malaysia

This study aimed to analyze the genetic diversity of the sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) population through mitochondrial D-loop DNA sequencing. The findings provide valuable insights into the conservation status of this vulnerable species in the region and inform future management strategies for Cervus unicolor. Blood samples from 10 individual sambar deer, consisting of 8 females and two male deer, were amplified using PCR and then sequenced. Data analysis of the genetic diversity of sambar deer was carried out using the genome sequencing method from NCBI, Bioedit 7.7.1 software, DNAsp 5.1, and MEGA 11 Software. The results of this study were that the DNA concentration test in sambar deer had an average of 12.375 ng/uL, with an average DNA purity test = 1.34, with 10 samples divided into 3 haplotypes. The level of genetic diversity of sambar deer from all samples is π = 0.01745 ± 0.00380, and haplotype diversity of Hd = 1,000 ± 0.045. Based on the phylogenetic tree, there are two parts: the Asian and Kalimantan regions. The conclusion of the current study showed that sequencing analysis of Sambar deer shows relatively high diversity and is a reasonable basis for performance selection and development of modern Sambar deer breeding.

ABSTRACTGaur (Bos gaurus) is a globally vulnerable species with a decline of more than 80% of their global distribution in the past 100 years. Understanding the species distribution pattern and associated factors is essential for developing effective conservation strategies. We examined the effects of forest area, human detections, presence of tiger (Panthera tigris), presence of competing species like Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), and sambar deer (Rusa unicolor), and distance to water, on gaur occupancy in Parsa National Park (PNP), Nepal, using camera traps which were deployed at 67 locations from December 2022 to March 2023. We used single season single species occupancy modeling to estimate the relationship of selected covariates with gaur occupancy. We recorded a total of 54 gaur detections in our study. We found that gaur occupancy had a significant positive association with the distance to water bodies and was negatively associated with forest area and the presence of elephants; however, there was no significant association with number of humans detected, or the presence of tigers, or sambar deers. Gaur had greater detection probabilities in southcentral portions of PNP, i.e., flat plains and areas near the Chure region and the lowest detection probabilities in the eastern and western parts of PNP. These findings highlight the importance of considering eco‐environmental factors in the management and conservation of gaur, particularly in human‐dominated landscapes. We recommend further multi‐seasonal studies to better understand the dynamic interactions between gaur, their environment, and other species, to inform effective conservation strategies.

The Sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) is a species facing the threat of population decline due to poaching. This study aims to analyze the genetic diversity of Sambar Deer from East Kalimantan using the Inter Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) molecular marker with primers P01 and P02. There were 10 sambar deer, eight females and two males, from Pembibitan Ternak dan Hijuan Pakan Ternak, Penajam Paser Utara, East Kalimantan. Blood samples were obtained from the jugular vein using an EDTA project tube. The samples were processed through Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and electrophoresis to detect polymorphism patterns. This research showed a DNA average purity of 1.382 and an average concentration of 13.205; primer P01 produced three haplotype diversity, and primer P02 produced two haplotype diversity. The Polymorphic Information Content (PIC) values were 0.632 for primer P01 and 0.304 for primer P02. Dendrogram analysis revealed three population clusters based on genetic diversity. The conclusion indicates polymorphism, with primer P01 showing higher polymorphism than primer P02.