Olive oil is a natural, unrefined product obtained mechanically from olives and consumed without refining. Ranging from green to yellow, it is valued for its distinctive sensory properties. It retains bioactive compounds that enhance stability and health benefits, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, circulation-improving, and wound-healing effects (Viola & Viola, 2009; Nasiri et al., 2015). In this study in November 2025, memecik-type olive oils were produced in six formulations: Early Harvest Cold-Pressed (EHCP), Cold-Pressed (B1), bay laurel (Laurus nobilis) leaf-flavored (D1), Origanum-flavored (K1), bitter orange (Citrus aurantium)-flavored (T1), and sage (Salvia fruticosa)-flavored (A1). Flavoring involved adding 10 kg bay laurel, 10 kg thyme, 50 kg bitter orange, or 10 kg sage to 1 ton of olives during processing. Samples were analyzed for free acidity, peroxide value, UV absorbance, aroma, and fatty acids. Biocompatibility (MTT, L929), anti-inflammatory activity (NO in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells), and wound-healing activity (against L929 cell lines) were also evaluated in vitro. Aroma analysis revealed that B1 contained the highest trans-2-hexenal (42.30%). D1, K1, and A1 were rich in 1,8-cineole (22.11%, 20.97%, 17.00%), whereas T1 was dominated by D-limonene (78.36%). After 24 h, NO levels increased by 48% in the LPS control; EHCP and A1 showed no change, while B1 and D1 reduced NO by 33% and 21%, and K1 and T1 showed stronger inhibition (43% and 47%), restoring near-baseline levels. After 72 h, wound closure reached 85% in the control, with the highest healing in D1 (95%), followed by EHCP (82%), B1 (67%), T1 (62%), and K1 (42%). These findings confirm that flavoring plants enhance olive oil’s anti-inflammatory and wound-healing effects by transferring bioactive metabolites.

Greek oregano (Origanum vulgare ssp. hirtum) is an important aromatic and medicinal crop grown in Greece, often on marginal lands. Effective weed management is essential for sustainable production, but the use of herbicides raises concerns about potential pesticide residues. Therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the residue levels of metribuzin + pendimethalin applied and incorporated pre-planting, as well metribuzin + cycloxydim and glyphosate applied post-emergence in oregano crop grown over a three-year period in the Agrinio location in Greece. Herbicide residue analysis in the edible part of the oregano plants was performed using two validated protocols, i.e., QuEChERS and QuPPe coupled with LC-MS/MS. The analytical methods demonstrated high sensitivity, with limits of quantification (LOQ) at 0.01 mg/kg and recovery rates ranging from 71% to 102%. These results indicated that the application of the above herbicides in oregano crop grown under Greek field conditions resulted in no detectable residues above the established LOQs, strongly supporting the potential safe use of these herbicides in oregano crop and their possible use for regulatory assessments and consumer safety assurance.

Oregano (Origanum vulgare) is a highly valued aromatic herb for culinary, medicinal, and ornamental purposes. Its commercial value is largely from its essential oil (EO), which is rich in key bioactive terpenoids, such as carvacrol and thymol. Greek oregano (O. vulgare subsp. hirtum) subspecies is particularly prized for its high EO content. In this study, we generated a high-quality genome assembly of Greek oregano to investigate its evolutionary trajectory and the genetic basis of terpenoid biosynthesis. The assembly spans 709.74 Mb and is anchored to 15 chromosomes, with a scaffold N50 of 46.36 Mb. Comparative genomic analysis revealed a whole-genome duplication event, estimated at ~59.93 million years ago, which likely contributed to the diversification of terpenoid biosynthesis pathways within the Lamiaceae family. Using a rapid screening approach, we identified Greek oregano mutants with higher EO content. Integrated genomic and transcriptomic analysis of a high-EO mutant highlighted the importance of α-linolenic acid metabolism/jasmonic acid (JA) biosynthesis pathways in EO production. Exogenous JA treatment led to upregulation of key EO biosynthetic genes and higher EO content. Furthermore, a JA-inducible bHLH transcription factor, OvbHLH13, was identified as a central regulator of terpenoid biosynthesis. Through Y1H, transcriptional activation, and EMSA assays, we demonstrated that OvbHLH13 directly bound to and transactivated the promoter of OvSDR1, which encodes a critical enzyme in thymol and carvacrol production. Collectively, this genomic resource provides valuable insights into the genetic and regulatory network controlling terpenoid biosynthesis and establishes a critical genomic foundation for molecular breeding of Greek oregano.

Green synthesis and larvicidal activity of ZnO nanoparticles against Lucilia sericata larvae using essential oil bio-reductants.

In Poland, the main causal agent of sooty blotch and flyspeck disease is the fungus Microcyclosporella mali J.Frank, Schroers et Crous, which is most commonly isolated from the spots found on apples. The aim of the paper was to study the effects of essential oils extracted from Greek oregano, thyme and costmary on M. mali. Analysis of the essential oils was conducted using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) with a flame ionization detector (FID). The Greek oregano essential oil was classified to the carvacrol chemotype, while the thyme and costmary were classified to the thymol and the β-thujone chemotypes, respectively. The influence of these essential oils on the viability of the M. mali conidia was analysed cytometrically. The Greek oregano oil was characterised by the significantly highest activity against the M. mali spores. The regression analysis performed showed the occurrence of a significant linear relationship between the viability of the conidia and the concentration of the essential oils, which was then the basis for the determination of MICs and MFCs. The values of these parameters in the case of the Greek oregano oil were 0.9 and 0.4%, respectively, and for the thyme oil they were 1.2 and 2.4%.

Traditional Arabic and Islamic Medicine (TAIM) originated in the seventh century, but unlike Chinese and Ayurvedic knowledge, TAIM has not evolved through evidence-based research and commercialization. Today, while global interest in traditional medicine is growing, TAIM ancestral knowledge remains unknown and unexplored. The purpose of this study is to provide baseline information on the status of TAIM research to guide future research and contribute to the growth of the sector. The focus of the study is the Fertile Crescent, a region of the Arab World endowed with a rich and diverse eco-geography. The method adopted was a scoping review following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. The databases used included the Arab World Research Source: Al Masdar, CAB Direct, Iraqi Academic Scientific Journals, MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar. The timeline of the search spanned from the database inception date to June 2024. The search led to 10,171 records which were subsequently reduced to 1,990 publications after deleting duplicates and performing a two-stage screening. Artificial intelligence (AI) technology was used to analyze the data focusing on reported plant species, treatment applications, study types and countries. The Generative Pretrained Transformer 4 (GPT-4) Turbo, a large language model, was used to extract the key features and the results were validated by the researchers. The findings revealed that the types of studies were mostly laboratory-based (86%), while few studies (14%) were field based. The top five treatment applications include cancer (29%), bacterial infections (22%), inflammation (12%), fungal infections (9%), and diabetes (8%). The most notable plant species that were under investigation in the various studies were Nigella sativa L. (Ranunculaceae), Rosmarinus officinalis L. (Lamiaceae), Salvia fruticosa Mill (Lamiaceae), Teucrium polium L. (Lamiaceae), and Thymus vulgaris L. (Lamiaceae). In this review we discuss our findings which suggest potential avenues for further developing TAIM research and exploring the development of botanical drugs. Our findings also revealed that the number of ethnobotanical studies was limited suggesting an urgent need to prevent the loss of ancestral knowledge by formalizing it through evidence-based research and policy guidelines. Addressing these gaps through interdisciplinary collaboration and improved data-sharing mechanisms will be crucial for advancing TAIM research and medicinal plants.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the technical and economic impact of using commercial phytogenic feed supplements and dried Greek Oregano leaves as feed additives on dairy sheep farms. Fifteen farms in the Greek region of Thessaly were divided into intervention and control farms, and techno-economic data were collected before and after supplementation through structured interviews and cost analysis. The results showed that the administration of certain phytogenic supplements and oregano to ewes resulted in improved animal health, higher milk yield, and lower production costs, which created a positive trend in the financial results of the farm. Further research is needed to accurately determine the ideal production stage of the animals for the interventions, the amount of supplements administered, and the selection of appropriate plant species, which would lead to better financial management of the farms.

Salvia fruticosa (Anatolian sage) contains significant amounts of secondary metabolites, which are essential for the plant's anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant effects. The drying methods applied post-harvest directly impact the plant's essential oil content, antioxidant activity (ABTS, DPPH), total phenol, and flavonoid levels. In particular, drying temperature and method are critical factors in determining the degradation rate of these compounds, playing an important role in preserving the plant's medicinal and aromatic value. This study aims to investigate the effects of different post-harvest drying methods on the bioactive properties of the Salvia fruticosa to identify the most effective drying method. In this study, Salvia fruticosa plant subjected to various drying methods: sun drying, shade drying, and oven drying at 100°C, 70°C, and 40°C. According to results, drying in shade yielded the highest values of DPPH radical scavenging activity (61.71 mg TEAC/g DW) and ABTS activity (91.39 mg TEAC/g DW), alongside essential oil content (1.60%) and phenolic content (31.41 mg GAE/g DW). In contrast, D100 (drying at 100 oC) showed the lowest values for DPPH, ABTS, essential oil, phenol, and flavonoid as 19.16 mg TEAC/g DW, 43.95 mg TEAC/g DW, 0.06%, 13.02 mg GAE/g DW, and 35.29 mg rutin/g DW, respectively, highlighting the detrimental effects of thermal degradation. These findings suggest that lower temperature drying methods, specifically shade and sun drying, are more effective in preserving the integrity of beneficial compounds, thus maximizing the antioxidant capacity and essential oil value of sage.

ABSTRACT We examined the phytochemical content, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticholinergic, antidiabetic, and antiglaucoma properties of ethanol and water extracts from Salvia fruticosa (SF) and Thymus vulgaris (TV). Extracts were analyzed using four antioxidant assays, while the enzyme inhibition was tested against α-amylase, acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), and human carbonic anhydrase II (hCA II). Antimicrobial activity was evaluated against pan-resistant bacterial strains. LC-MS/MS identified rosmarinic acid as the major compound (27.61 and 34.35 mg/L in TV and SF, respectively). Ethanolic extracts had higher phenolic content (181.0 ± 7.86 and 107.0 ± 5.78 µg GAE/mg for SF and TV, respectively). SF showed stronger metal-reducing capacity, while TV had superior radical scavenging ability, judging by the IC50 values (13.68 ± 1.18 μg/mL), defined as the concentration that reduces 50% of the enzyme activity. The highest inhibition was observed for hCA II (SF ethanolic extract, IC50 14.51 ± 4.07 μg/mL), AChE (SF aqueous extract, IC50 16.51 ± 3.77 μg/mL), and BChE (TV aqueous extract, IC50 10.60 ± 4.93 μg/mL). SF ethanolic extract inhibited the growth of Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis (11 mm at 60 μg/mL). These findings highlight SF and TV as potential sources of natural antioxidants, enzyme inhibitors, and antimicrobials for pharmaceutical and food formulations.

The field experiment was carried out on a private farm in Trębanów, Świętokrzyskie Province, in 2020–2022. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of selected biopreparations on the morphological traits of plants, the size and structure of yields, and the content and yield of Greek oregano essential oil. Natural biostimulants Stimplex (2 dm3 ha–1), Tecamin Max (1.5 dm3 ha–1), and Kendal (1 dm3 ha–1) were used in the study. The results demonstrated positive effects of the foliar application of the biostimulants on the morphological, performance, and quality parameters of Greek oregano. The most effective treatment was the application of the biostimulant containing extracts of Ascophyllum nodosum algae (Stimplex), followed by the preparation containing amino acids (Tecamin Max). They increased the plant growth rate, the number of lateral branches, and the raw material yield and had a positive effect on the content of essential oil. The size and quality of the Greek oregano yield also depended on the age of the plants and varied between the study years. Higher raw material and oil yields were obtained from two-year plantations. The drought in 2022 limited plant growth and resulted in a lower yield; nevertheless, the essential oil content in the herb increased in these conditions..

Background: The germination and early development of Origanum vulgare L. subsp. hirtum (Link) Ietswaart (Greek oregano) were studied to assess the plant’s response to different temperatures. Methods: After germination, seedlings were cultivated in control (25 °C) and cold (15 °C) chambers with standard growth parameters. Comparative analyses of plant morphology and leaf anatomy were conducted to identify structural modifications induced by different temperatures. Physiological evaluations, including photosynthetic pigment measurements, phenolic content, and antioxidant activity, were performed to assess differences between the plants grown under the two temperature conditions. Methanolic extracts from the leaves were tested for cytotoxicity on MCF-7 breast adenocarcinoma cells and SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells, as well as on nine microbial strains. Additionally, biomarkers from the leaves affected by temperature changes were determined using LC-HRMS/MS analysis. Results: Comparative analyses revealed distinct structural and physiological modifications under cold conditions. The methanolic extracts from plants grown at 15 °C exhibited notably higher cytotoxic activity in both cell lines but demonstrated no activity against microbial strains. The results highlight the influence of low temperature on enhancing the bioactive properties of Greek oregano. Conclusions: The findings provide valuable insights into the environmental adaptability of oregano, demonstrating the impact of low temperature on its bioactive properties. The therapeutic potential of methanolic extracts cultured at 15 °C is imprinted in cytotoxicity in SH-SY5Y and MCF-7 cells and the absence of any activity against microbial strains.

Carnosol (CO) and carnosic acid (CA) are pharmaceutically important diterpenes predominantly produced in members of Lamiaceae, Salvia officinalis (garden sage), Salvia fruticosa, and Rosmarinus officinalis. Nevertheless, the availability of these compounds in plant systems is very low. In an effort to improve the in planta content of these diterpenes in garden sage, SmERF6 (Salvia miltiorrhiza Ethylene Responsive Factor 6) transcription factor was expressed heterologously. Bai etal. (The ethylene response factor SmERF6 co-regulates the transcription of SmCPS1 and SmKSL1 and is involved in tanshinone biosynthesis in Salvia miltiorrhiza hairy roots. Planta 2018; 248:243-55.) proved that SmERF6 binds to the promoter regions of Copalyl pyrophosphate synthase and Kaurene synthase-like genes and improves transcription, thereby augmenting ferruginol levels, a common precursor for abietane diterpenes in Salvia genus; moreover, transgenic hairy roots of S. miltiorrhiza displayed 4-fold improved tanshinone content. In our study, heterologous transient expression of SmERF6 in S. officinalis exhibited inter-specific activity in promoting differential accumulation of diterpenes. Overexpression studies showed elevation in the levels of CO (2-fold) and CA (5-fold). Furthermore, in infiltrated leaves levels of ferruginol (50%) and CA derivatives (rosmanol, epirosmanol, and methyl CA) were significantly upregulated along with the other signature terpenes. Finally, stable transgenic lines of S. officinalis developed through Agrobacterium-mediated in planta genetic transformation accumulated significant amounts of CO (4-folds) and CA (3-folds), as compared to wild plants. Overall, the present study is the first report on improving the content of pharmaceutically important diterpenes in S. officinalis by overexpressing pathway-specific transcription factors. The current findings showed convincing evidence for the concept of improving specialized metabolite(s) content in medicinal plants by manipulating the expression of transcriptional regulators.

Origanum vulgare spp. hirtum or commonly known as Greek oregano, is considered one of the best medicinal and aromatic plants worldwide. Its essential oil, mainly rich in carvacrol or thymol, makes the species of unique importance for culinary and pharmaceutical uses. The plant grows in the wild, maintaining its exceptional chemical characteristics, but it is also cultivated. Its cultivation is the solution to guarantee its supply and limit the overexploitation of wild populations. Nevertheless, apart from Origanum vulgare spp. hirtum, newly described varieties or other species merit further attention. Therefore, in this study, cultivated plants of O. vulgaris spp. hirtum, Origanum onites, and Origanum × intercedens were evaluated for their volatile profile using GC-MS analysis. Our results showed that all the Origanum species are rich in essential oil in which carvacrol is the most abundant constituent. In addition, new data regarding O. vulgare spp. hirtum var. Arethousa and the hybrid Origanum × intercedens, add valuable information and prove that further exploitation of these two species is of great importance to the food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industry.

Nowadays, eco-friendly extraction techniques are often used to develop natural plant extracts for commercial use. In the current investigation, Greek oregano (Origanum vulgare) phenolic extracts from different cultivated accessions were recovered employing ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), and accelerated solvent extraction (ASE). The phytochemical profile of the oregano extracts, as determined by spectrophotometric and chromatographic techniques, as well as antioxidant activity (ABTS, DPPH, and FRAP assays), was used to compare the three extraction approaches. The results showed that oregano phenolic extracts obtained by MAE held the highest total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, and also a higher content of the main phenolic compounds identified, rosmarinic acid, salvianolic acid B and carvacrol, as determined by LC-MS analysis, followed by those extracted by UAE and ASE. All of the tested extracts exhibited relatively high antioxidant activities, especially the MAE extracts. Oregano extracts produced by various extraction techniques were subjected to a multivariate data analysis to highlight differences in phytochemical profiles, and their correlation to antioxidant activity. According to our findings, it was evident that MAE offers more efficient and effective extraction of bioactive compounds in terms of obtaining phytochemical-rich oregano extracts, with applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Background: Although pregnancy has been an integral part of women’s lives for millennia, not all women have found the process comfortable. About 65 percent of women in India consume Indian traditional herbs during pregnancy. Herbal medicines are used nowadays by up to half of the world's population. Phytomedicines isolated from plants contain a wide variety of bioactive components that can have both negative and positive effects. Many herbal plants, such as Sage (Salvia fruticosa), golden cotula (Matricaria aurea), anise (P. anisum), peppermint (Mentha aquatica), and cumin (Cuminum cyminum), etc., are used in pregnancy. To minimize the adverse effects, the use of Indian traditional medicine can be the best possible alternative. Objective: Regarding the usage of herbal medicines in India, there are large research gaps and a lack of a regulatory framework. This article aims to highlight the most common traditional Indian remedies used by pregnant women, along with their uses and any possible interactions between herbal remedies and prescription drugs. Method: Several databases, including the WHO guidelines, PubMed, Bentham Science, Elsevier, Springer Nature, Wiley, and Research Gate, were used to compile the data for the article following a thorough analysis of the various research findings connected to pregnancy and herbs for pregnancy care. Result: An overview of the use of herbal medicine is given in this review, along with information on its limitations and general safety. The prevalence of herbal medicine use during pregnancy in India is then discussed, along with the uses, adverse effects, side effects, and efficacy of the most popular herbal medications. Conclusion: The use of herbal medicine during pregnancy is a common phenomenon. The outcomes of this study showed Indian Traditional medicines are known to have numerous advantages that can be helpful during or after pregnancy, including raising milk production, reducing nausea, easing labor pains, reducing morning sickness, or reducing flatulence, however, some herbal remedies have the potential to be teratogenic, poisonous, and abortive, especially during the first trimester of pregnancy because the active components of some medicinal plants can cross the placental barrier and get to the foetus. To determine the safety of taking herbal medications, studies, especially clinical trial trials, must be conducted.

The species of the genus Salvia are known for their medicinal value due to the presence of chemical compounds or as they are known as secondary metabolites. These compounds are present in the aerial parts of the plant, mainly in their glandular trichomes. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the micromorphological structures of glandular trichomes and identify the secondary metabolites they contain in Salvia fruticosa Mill. in the Dhermi area, in South Albania. The histochemical technique used for the identification of secondary metabolites is the classical technique of staining the freehand sections of fresh plant material, which exploits the properties of certain reagents to form the chemical compounds containing glandular trichomes, stained products visible in the light microscope. Three main types of glandular trichomes were identified: peltate, capitate, and digitiforme. Peltate trichomes possess a basal cell, a short unicellular stalk, and a large secretory head with 8 secretory cells. Four types of capitate trichomes and a type of digitiforme trichome have been found in Salvia fruticosa Mill. Fenoles were detected at a high level at capitate trichomes type I and peltate trichomes. Proteins were detected at a high level at capitate trichomes type III. Alcaloides and tanines were detected at high levels at capitate trichomes type I, II, III and digitiforme trichomes. Tanines were detected at peltate trichomes too. Lipides were detected at high levels at capitate trichomes type II and III. Polisacharides were detected at high levels at capitate trichomes type II, III, IV, digitiforme, and peltate trichomes. Mucilages were detected at high level at capitate trichomes type III and peltate trichomes.

The aim of this study was to determine the activity of common thyme (Thymus vulgare L.), Greek oregano (Origanum vulgare L. ssp. hirtum), and common oregano (Origanum vulgare L. ssp. vulgare) essential oils (EOs) against selected phytopathogenic microorganisms in relation to their chemical profile. The EOs were obtained from the herbs of 2-year-old plants cultivated in the organic farming system in a temperate climate in Central Europe. The EOs' composition was determined by GC/MS and GC/FID. The investigated species were represented by the following three chemotypes: 'thymol' for common thyme, 'carvacrol' for Greek oregano, and mixed 'caryophyllene oxide + β-caryophyllene' for common oregano. The antimicrobial activity of the EOs was assessed based on minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal/fungicidal concentration (MBC/MFC) values. The plant pathogenic bacteria Pseudomonas syringae, Xanthomonas hortorum, Erwinia carotovora, and fungi: Fusarium culmorum, Alternaria alternata, Botrytis cinerea, Epicoccum purpurascens, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Phoma strasseri, and Pythium debaryanum were tested. The EOs revealed a stronger inhibitory effect against fungal growth in comparison to bacterial growth (MIC: 0.016-2 µL/mL for fungi and 0.125-4 µL/mL for bacteria). Common thyme and Greek oregano EOs indicated stronger antimicrobial power than common oregano EO. These results were associated with the chemical profile of the analysed EOs. The growth of examined bacteria and fungi strains (in particular, X. hortorum, F. culmorum, and P. debaryanum) were negatively correlated with the content of phenolic monoterpenes and monoterpene hydrocarbons. Among the tested strains, P. strasseri turned out to be the most sensitive (MIC 0.016 µL/mL) and E. carotovora the most resistant (MIC 0.250-4 µL/mL) to all investigated EOs.

This research studied the phenolic content compared with the antioxidant properties of various O. vulgare (Lamiaceae) cultivars grown in Poland. The research results in this paper indicate that the dominant ingredient in all oregano cultivars was rosmarinic acid, known for its strong antioxidant properties. The highest amounts of rosmarinic acid (87.16 ± 4.03 mg/g dm) were identified in the O. vulgare spp. hirtum (Link) Ietsw. Other metabolites identified in the studied extracts include luteolin O-di-glucuronide-O-di-pentoside (30.79 ± 0.38 mg/g dm in the ‘Aureum’ cultivar), 4′-O-glucopyranosyl-3′, 4′-dihydroxy benzyl-protocatechuate (19.84 ± 0.60 mg/g dm in the ‘Margerita’ cultivar), and p-coumaroyl-triacetyl-hexoside (25.44 ± 0.18 mg/g dm in the ‘Margerita’ cultivar). ‘Hot & spicy’ and ‘Margerita’ cultivars were characterized by the highest activity in eliminating OH• and O2•− radicals. Extracts from Greek oregano had the highest ability to scavenge DPPH radicals and chelate iron ions. This research has also provided new evidence that oregano has anti-migratory, cytotoxic properties and influences the viability of gastric cancer cells (the highest cytotoxicity was attributed to the ‘Hot & spicy’ cultivar, which performed the worst in antioxidant properties tests). Extracts from the tested cultivars at a concentration of 0.625% effectively inhibited the growth of S. aureus and P. aeruginosa bacteria. It seems that the oregano grown in Poland is of good quality and can be successfully grown on a large scale if the appropriate use is found.

ABSTRACT Salvia (Salvia fruticosa Mill) is used in traditional medicine and in food and pharmacological industries, and as organically grown plants are preferred it is important to understand how organic soil fertilisation regimes affect the nutritional status and quality of the plant. To address this, an experiment was conducted testing the direct (in the first year) and residual (in the second year) effects of different organic nutrient inputs; control (C: untreated plants), farmyard manure (FYM), chicken manure (CM), vermicompost (VC), and spent mushroom compost (SMC). In the first year, N concentrations in the salvia were increased by 15%–46% and 8%–16%, at beginning of flowering and at full flowering, respectively, indicating a direct effect of the organic amendments. In the second year, the residual effects of the organic amendments increased N concentrations by 8%–37% at beginning of flowering. The organic amendments also affected concentrations of P at full flowering and caused increases of 6%–23% in the first year and by 6%–18% in the second year. Soil organic matter increased by 13%–16% as direct effects of the organic amendments and by 14%–24% as residual effects. Antioxidant activity, total flavonoid and phenolic concentrations of the salvia increased with applications of organic amendments. Total phenolic concentration and antioxidant activity were positively correlated with N, Mn and Mg and negatively correlated with K, Ca and P in the plant leaves. VC and SMC were the most effective amendments for enhancing total flavonoid content, antioxidant activity and plant nutrient concentrations.

Synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles from the medicinal plant Salvia fruticosa Mill.: Green approach for potential biomedical application against Zn deficiency in humans