Soil salinization threatens productivity and ecosystem stability in arid regions, yet salinity-tolerance mechanisms of native UAE desert shrubs remain poorly resolved under field-like conditions. This study aimed to identify tolerance strategies and rank salinity resilience among Lycium shawii , Salvadora persica , Calligonum comosum , and Haloxylon salicornicum . Plants were grown in an outdoor pot trial under ambient desert conditions and irrigated with three salinity levels (ECw = 1.5, 10, and 25 dS m - ¹). Severe salinity (25 dS m - ¹) revealed clear interspecific divergence: S. persica and L. shawii maintained 100% survival, relatively stable water status and photosynthetic performance, and reduced membrane injury and lipid peroxidation. Their tolerance was associated with stronger osmotic adjustment (higher proline and soluble sugars), improved ion homeostasis (lower shoot Na + accumulation and more stable K + status relative to H. salicornicum ), and enhanced antioxidant capacity (higher enzyme activities and radical scavenging). In contrast, C. comosum showed reduced survival (83.3%), marked dehydration, strong photosynthetic inhibition, weak antioxidant activation, and pronounced membrane damage, indicating limited high-salinity tolerance. H. salicornicum displayed intermediate performance, consistent with ion-handling–based tolerance but with higher physiological costs. Overall tolerance ranked S. persica > L. shawii > H. salicornicum > C. comosum . Correlation analysis and PCA supported coordinated contributions of water status, ion regulation, and oxidative protection to tolerance. These findings provide field-relevant mechanistic evidence to guide species selection for biosaline agriculture and saline-land rehabilitation in arid environments.

Synergistic effect of berry wax and miswak extract in a carboxymethylcellulose-based coating for banana preservation.

<b>Background and Objective:</b> Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC), particularly tongue malignancies, remains a major global health concern due to late diagnosis and limited treatment options. <i>Salvadora persica</i> (Miswak), traditionally used by ancient Arabs for oral hygiene, contains numerous bioactive compounds with potential therapeutic value. This study aimed to evaluate the antioxidant properties of Miswak extract using different solvents, quantify its total phenolic and flavonoid content and assess its anticancer activity against an oral cancer cell line through <i>in vitro</i> and <i>in silico </i>approaches. <b>Materials and Methods:</b> Miswak extracts were prepared using water, acetone and ethanol to compare antioxidant capacity and phytochemical content. The extract exhibiting the highest activity was selected for further analysis. The ethanolic extract was subsequently tested on the human tongue carcinoma cell line (HNO97) using the Sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay to determine cytotoxicity. The ELISA was conducted to quantify TNF-α and VEGF-A levels, while real-time PCR was used to measure the expression of caspase-3 and caspase-7. Molecular docking was performed to evaluate the binding affinity of Miswak-derived compounds toward DAPK1, a key protein involved in regulating apoptosis. Statistical analyses were applied to assess the significance of the findings. <b>Results:</b> The ethanolic extract exhibited the highest antioxidant activity and was selected for anticancer evaluation. SRB assay results showed potent cytotoxicity against HNO97 cells with an IC<sub>50</sub> of 260.03 μg/mL. The ELISA confirmed significant downregulation of TNF-α and VEGF-A, indicating pronounced anti-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic effects. Real-time PCR demonstrated upregulation of caspase-3 and caspase-7, suggesting activation of apoptotic pathways. Molecular docking supported these observations by revealing strong binding affinities of the extract's bioactive compounds to DAPK1. <b>Conclusion:</b> The ethanolic extract of <i>Salvadora persica</i> demonstrates promising antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenic and pro-apoptotic properties, indicating its potential as a natural therapeutic candidate for oral squamous cell carcinoma. These findings provide a strong foundation for further <i>in vivo</i> and preclinical studies to validate its efficacy and safety.

Oral and dental health is frequently neglected in global public health priorities despite its profound impact on quality of life and socioeconomic burdens. This research aims to analyze the urgency of oral hygiene as an implementation of Thaharah within the Ahlussunnah wal Jamaah (Aswaja) framework, integrating theological and scientific perspectives. Employing a narrative review methodology, this study synthesizes classical Shafi'i jurisprudence and Al-Ghazali’s Sufism with contemporary biomedical data (2014-2025) sourced from Scopus and PubMed databases. The findings indicate that within the Aswaja tradition, oral hygiene transcends secular routines, functioning as a religious obligation with spiritual and metaphysical dimensions, including the sensitivity of angels to halitosis. Scientifically, the use of miswak (Salvadora persica) is validated through bioactive compounds such as benzyl isothiocyanate, fluoride, and silica, which exhibit potent antimicrobial properties and enamel protection. This integration reframes oral hygiene within the Maqasid Syariah (Objectives of Islamic Law), specifically Hifz al-Nafs (preservation of life/health) and Hifz al-Din (preservation of religion). The study concludes that evidence-based Islamic oral hygiene practices provide a holistic foundation for systemic health and the enhancement of religious devotion.

Optimization and evaluation of antibacterial extracts from Acacia nilotica, Psidium guajava, Syzygium aromaticum, and Salvadora persica to inhibit dental caries.

Protective effect of Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora oleoides and Salvadora persica extracts against Androctonus finitimus envenomation.

Background: Oral health is essential for maintaining overall well-being, as poor oral hygiene has been associated with various systemic diseases. Common issues such as halitosis, dental caries, and gum inflammation adversely affect quality of life. Conventional toothpastes often contain synthetic ingredients that may cause side effects, creating a growing need for natural alternatives. This study aimed to develop an herbal toothpaste using karanj (Millettia pinnata), miswak (Salvadora persica), and banana peel (Musa spp.), known for their antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. Methods: Active compounds were extracted from the botanicals using standard solvent extraction techniques. The extracts were characterized for their phytochemical constituents and incorporated into a toothpaste base optimized for pH, stability, texture, and consistency. The antimicrobial activity of the formulation was tested against common oral pathogens, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Additionally, a sensory evaluation was conducted to assess taste and foaming ability. Results: Phytochemical screening confirmed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, and phenolic compounds responsible for antimicrobial action. The herbal toothpaste exhibited significant antibacterial activity, showing inhibition zones comparable to some commercial formulations. Sensory evaluation results indicated favorable responses in terms of taste, texture, and overall satisfaction. The formulation remained stable in consistency and pH during the testing period. Conclusions: The herbal toothpaste formulated demonstrated strong antimicrobial efficacy. This study supports the potential of plant-based ingredients as safe, cost-effective, and eco-friendly alternatives to synthetic oral care products, promoting sustainable and holistic oral hygiene.

Root canal irrigant is a very important factor in supporting the success of root canal treatment. The currently recommended combination of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), ethylenediamintetraacetic acid (EDTA), and chlorhexidine has many drawbacks including toxicity to periapical tissues, bad taste, negative interactions between ingredients, and extended application time. Siwak (Salvadora persica) stem extract has been widely studied in its use as a dental material, including as a root canal irrigant. This study aims to formulate the ethyl acetate fraction of siwak with low concentration NaOCl, and test its antibacterial potential against E. faecalis. This research used 9 groups, namely the ethyl acetate fraction (FEA) of siwak ethanol extract with the concentrations of 1.25 mg/ml, 2.5 mg/ml, 5 mg/ml, a combination of FEA siwak 1.25 mg/ml + NaOCl 1.25%, FEA siwak 2.5 mg/ml + NaOCl 1.25%, FEA siwak 5 mg/ml + NaOCl 1.25%, NaOCl 1,25%, saline, and chlorhexidine. Based on the number of colony counts, the most significant inhibition was seen in the combination group of FEA siwak 5 mg/ml + NaOCl 1.25%. Data analysis was carried out using the One Way ANOVA test with a significance value of 0.00 (p <0.05) followed by the Post Hoc LSD test with a significance value of 0.130 (p>0.05) in the comparison between the combination group of FEA siwak 5 mg/ml + NaOCl 1.25% with chlorhexidine. The combination of FEA siwak 5 mg/ml + NaOCl 1.25% has the same effectiveness as chlorhexidine 2% in inhibiting E. faecalis bacteria, and potential as a root canal irrigant.

ObjectiveExcessive intake of electrolyte sports drinks (ESDs) among adolescents and athletes is associated with dental erosion due to their low pH, while their sugar content increases the risk of dental caries. This study aimed to evaluate and compare the protective effects of incorporating either L-arginine or Salvadora persica (Miswak) extract into an ESD on enamel surface properties.Materials and methodsExtracted human premolars were randomly assigned to three groups (n = 6): (1) plain ESD, (2) ESD with 1% L-arginine (Arg-ESD), and (3) ESD with 10% Salvadora persica extract (Mis-ESD). Each specimen was immersed in its respective solution for 5 min daily over 7 days. Post-treatment assessments included enamel microhardness (VHN), surface roughness (Sa), colour change (ΔE), Ca/P ratio, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) for surface morphology. A taste acceptability survey was conducted in adult volunteers. Statistical analysis used one-way ANOVA (α = 0.05). In addition, a small panel of adult volunteers (n = 20) evaluated the taste acceptability of the modified formulations after providing informed consent.ResultsBoth Arg-ESD and Mis-ESD significantly increased enamel microhardness and reduced surface roughness compared to plain ESD (P < 0.01), with Mis-ESD showing the greatest improvements. Mis-ESD also enhanced colour stability (P < 0.001). SEM images confirmed preservation of enamel structure, particularly in Mis-ESD specimens. Taste testing indicated good palatability for both modified formulations.ConclusionIncorporating Salvadora persica extract into ESDs significantly improved enamel resistance to erosion and enhanced aesthetic properties. Miswak-enriched ESDs could serve as a preventive option for dental erosion.Clinical relevanceFormulating ESDs with Salvadora persica may reduce their erosive potential while preserving taste acceptability, offering a novel, consumer-friendly strategy to protect enamel in high-risk populations.

Background: Commercial oral care products commonly incorporate synthetic antimicrobials such as cetylpyridinium chloride (Cetyl Cl.), L-Arginine (L-arg.), and stannous fluoride (SnF2). Although effective against oral pathogens, these agents are often associated with adverse effects including mucosal irritation, taste alteration, and disruption of the oral microbiome. These limitations have spurred growing interest in safer, plant-based alternatives. In this study, we present a two-pronged in vitro oral care testing model that integrates cell assays with machine-guided quantitative microscopy analyses to assess both antibacterial efficacy and host biocompatibility of botanical extracts. Methods: Using Miswak (Salvadora persica) and Neem (Azadirachta indica) as representative natural products, we conducted antibacterial and antibiofilm testing including the evaluation of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum biofilm inhibitory concentration (MBIC), and minimum biofilm eradication concentration (MBEC), alongside biocompatibility assessments via MTT cell viability assays on probiotic bacteria and mammalian oral cells. To evaluate biofilm structure and disruption, we employed scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), augmented with machine-guided Weka segmentation and automated image analysis. Results: Our findings show that Miswak and Neem extracts exhibited 75–100% antibacterial and antibiofilm efficacy against all tested bacteria, as demonstrated by cell assays and microscopy analyses, comparable to synthetic oral care agents. They also maintained ~100% viability toward commensal microbes and mammalian oral cells, whereas Cetyl Cl. and SnF2 showed dose-dependent cytotoxicity. Conclusions: This dual-assessment oral care testing model provides a comprehensive and biologically relevant framework for the discovery and screening of safe and effective natural herbal extracts in oral care applications.

Recently, the field of phyto-nanomedicines has emerged as a promising avenue of research for generating sustainable, economically viable, and medically safe plant-based metal nanoparticles (NPs) with boosted therapeutic potential. Despite advancements, the literature remains inconclusive regarding the optimal extraction protocol for these plants to yield NPs with maximized functionality. Therefore, this study pioneered the use of two diverse UAE-Salvadora persica extracts; namely, aqueous and hydro-alcoholic, in the biological synthesis of green zinc and iron oxides NPs, aiming to resolve the research gap concerning the ideal extraction protocol for biomedical green NPs’ production. Our findings revealed that the alcoholic extract yielded NPs with superior phytochemical surface coating, and higher phenolic (42.94 ± 2.79 µg of GAE/mg of DW) and flavonoid (45.63 ± 1.88 µg of QU/mg of DW) contents, resulting in stronger antioxidant properties with IC50s ranging from 69.68 µg/mL to 180.26 µg/mL. Nevertheless, the aqueous extract demonstrated superior reducing efficacy, and its corresponding zinc oxide NPs exhibited the strongest cytotoxicity against A-431 cells (IC50:377.39 µg/mL), surpassing the activity of its parent crude extract. These extract-dependent nanoparticle variations were further confirmed and resonated via QTOF-LC/MS/MS and Principal Component Analysis analyses. Thus, our findings emphasize that selection of appropriate extraction protocols is crucial for therapeutic plant-based NPs’ development.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-20577-7.

Drought stress is one of the most dangerous consequences of climate change, threatening plants and ecosystem stability worldwide. Most available studies have focused on drought tolerance in crops, while many desert native plant species remain poorly studied, despite their exceptional ability to tolerate drought. This research gap limits our ability to harness these plants in climate change-resilient agriculture, ecological restoration, food and forage innovation, and genetic improvement programs. This study aims to evaluate and compare the drought tolerance mechanisms of four native species, including Lycium shawii, Salvadora persica, Calligonum comosum, and Haloxylon salicornicum, under three irrigation regimes: control (100% field capacity), moderate drought (40% FC), and severe drought (25% FC), and to identify the traits responsible for tolerance to use them in future agricultural achievements. Morphological parameters, photosynthetic pigments, relative water content (RWC), gas exchange parameters (A, gs, E, VPD), osmolyte accumulation, lipid peroxidation (MDA), antioxidant enzyme activities (CAT, POD, SOD, PPO), and membrane stability (EC, EL) were assessed. Drought reduced biomass and plant height in all species, with L. shawii and H. salicornicum showing high root-to-shoot ratios due to adaptive root investment. L. shawii had stable chlorophyll and carotenoid levels, while C. comosum showed a sharp decline. Photosynthetic efficiency and water use parameters remained stable in L. shawii and S. persica, while they declined under severe drought in the remaining species. L. shawii had higher proline and sugar accumulation, reflecting effective osmotic adjustment. L. shawii and S. persica had strong antioxidant responses, and lower MDA and electrolyte leakage confirmed better oxidative stress defense. In contrast, C. comosum showed weak membrane stability. These results showed that L. shawii and S. persica have superior drought tolerance through physiological, biochemical, and structural adaptations. This research helps in selecting drought-tolerant species for desert rehabilitation, land restoration, and future breeding programs.

Background: Hepatocarcinoma (HCC) is the primary form of liver cancer, which is a highly prevalent cancer associated with an increased rate of mortality worldwide. The plant Salvadora persica (miswak) has been reported for its cytotoxic effect in various cancer cell lines. The purpose of the current research study was to assess the cytotoxicity and apoptosis-inducing capability of Salvadora persica aqueous extract from the root part (miswak sticks) on human HCC HepG2 cells and to evaluate its safety in human normal hepatic THLE-2 cells in a dose-dependent manner.Materials and methods: The preparation of aqueous extract from the root part of Salvadora persica was carried out using a maceration extraction process. The effect on cytotoxicity and cellular proliferation in HepG2 cells and THLE-2 cells at 10, 50, 100, 150, and 200 µg/mL concentrations after 24, 48, and 72 hours was determined using the MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay. In further experiments, IC50 (24 hours) was 65.8 µg/mL, and increasing concentrations were employed: 115 µg/mL (twofold) and 165 µg/mL (threefold). The apoptosis at the quantitative level was evaluated using a flow cytometry assay by the Annexin V-FITC/PI apoptosis detection kit in HepG2 cells and THLE-2 cells. The expression levels of the proapoptotic proteins Annexin V and p53 in the HepG2 cell line were assessed using an immunocytochemistry assay. The mRNA levels of apoptosis markers, caspase 9, caspase 3, cytochrome c, BAX, and p53, and the antiapoptotic marker, Bcl-2, in the HepG2 cell line were determined using the RT-qPCR (real-time, quantitative-polymerase chain reaction) assay.Results: Salvadora persica aqueous extract demonstrated time-dependent and dose-dependent growth inhibitory effect and cytotoxicity in the HepG2 cell line in the MTT test. The IC50 values were 65.8 µg/mL at 24 hours, 51.4 µg/mL at 48 hours, and 30.3 µg/mL at 72 hours. In contrast, a non-toxic effect was observed in the THLE-2 cell line. The flow cytometry results indicated a significantly enhanced apoptotic effect, characterized by increased early apoptosis, late apoptosis, and cell death in HepG2 cells. In contrast, the normal THLE-2 cell line showed insignificant apoptotic cell numbers. In the immunostaining assay, a pronounced elevation in the expression levels of proapoptotic proteins, including p53 and Annexin V, was observed. The RT-qPCR assay revealed an increase in the fold change of caspase 9, caspase 3, cytochrome c, BAX, and p53 mRNA levels, along with a decrease in Bcl-2 mRNA levels. Salvadora persica aqueous extract induced apoptosis via the intrinsic pathway in the HepG2 cell line. Salvadora persica aqueous extract exhibited the most significant apoptotic effect in HepG2 cells at high concentrations.Conclusions: In the present study, Salvadora persica aqueous extract demonstrated dose-dependent antitumor potential in the HCC cell line HepG2 through the induction of intrinsic apoptosis and showed non-toxic activity in the normal hepatic THLE-2 cell line, emphasizing its therapeutic efficacy in HCC treatment.

Integration of various forms of Salvadora Persica « Siwak » into dental composites: A pilot in vitro study.

ABSTRACTSalvadora faces a significant threat of being in decline in semi‐arid regions. This study investigates the distribution status of Salvadora species in semi‐arid habitats, moreover examines how habitat types, climatic conditions and soil variability influence plant's functional traits and distribution. The study was organized in the semi‐arid lowlands of the Sahiwal Division, Pakistan. Field surveys were conducted from 2021 to 2023 across 51 sites comprised of four types of habitats, i.e., archaeological sites, graveyards, roadsides, and railway lines. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) were applied to examine the impact of habitat types and environmental variables on Salvadora distribution. Two species of Salvadora, i.e., Salvadora persica Linn and Salvadora oleoides Decne, were identified taxonomically in the study area. S. persica was found to be more abundant than S. oleoides. These results recommend that S. persica was more dominant in most sites except for Sahiwal, where both species had similar densities. The number of tree trunks, tree height, and leaf size, leaf biomass are some of the dominant traits that were influenced by habitat variability. Other factors like temperature, precipitation, th soil's pH and moisture levels play important roles in species distribution within these habitats. Despite Salvadora notable economic and ecological importance, its ecological situation is critical because of overexploitation, climate change, and habitat destruction. To ensure that Salvadora continues to exist and perform its ecological functions in its natural habitat, protecting and managing strategies need to be planned and enforced.

Context:There is a global rise in the prevalence of oral diseases, increasing the need for oral hygiene methods that are safe, effective, economical, and easily accessible. Plant-derived chewing sticks have long been used as traditional oral hygiene tools. Salvadora persica, commonly known as Miswak, is the most widely used plant for this purpose. Aim:To evaluate the efficacy of Miswak as an adjunct to tooth brushing in improving gingival health among male patients in Qassim. Materials and Methodology:This case–control clinical study was conducted at Qassim University Medical City Dental Hospital, Al-Rass, involving 30 male patients. Participants used tooth brushing alone for 14 days, followed by 14 days of tooth brushing combined with Miswak use. Plaque Index (PI) and Gingival Index (GI) scores were recorded at baseline (T0) and after each intervention period. Results:There was a statistically significant reduction in Plaque Index between baseline and the tooth brushing plus Miswak period (p = 0.01214). A similar significant improvement was observed in Gingival Index scores (p = 0.011062813). Post-hoc t-test analysis showed a statistically significant difference in Plaque Index scores between T0 and the TB+M 14-day period (two-tailed p = 0.004525). Gingival Index scores also showed a statistically significant improvement between T0 and TB+M 14 days (two-tailed p = 0.00553982). Conclusion:Within the limitations of this study, the combination of tooth brushing and Miswak significantly improves plaque control and gingival health.

Successful endodontic therapy in primary teeth relies on effective microbial control. Although conventional irrigants are effective, they pose risks such as cytotoxicity, unpleasant taste, and tissue irritation. Herbal alternatives offer a safer, biocompatible option, especially suitable for children. To evaluate and compare the antimicrobial efficacy of a sequential herbal irrigation protocol with a conventional irrigation protocol in the endodontic treatment of primary teeth. It is a split-mouth, double-blind, and randomized controlled trial that included 15 pediatric patients aged 4-8 years with bilateral primary molars indicated for pulpectomy. Group I received conventional irrigation with 3% sodium hypochlorite, 17% ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, and 2% chlorhexidine. Group II underwent sequential herbal irrigation using ethanolic extracts of 12.5% Salvadora persica (Miswak), 20% Azadirachta indica (Neem), 2% tea tree oil, and 10% phytic acid. Pre and postirrigation microbial samples were collected and cultured to quantify Enterococcus faecalis and Prevotella intermedia. Statistical analysis used paired t-tests for intragroup comparisons and one-way analysis of variance for intergroup differences, with significance set at P < 0.05. Both groups showed significant microbial reduction (P < 0.0001). Group I had 90.54% and 87.6% reductions in E. faecalis and P. intermedia, respectively, while Group II achieved 92.2% and 90.54%. Herbal irrigation showed significantly greater E. faecalis reduction (P = 0.025), but P. intermedia reduction was not significant (P = 0.384). The sequential herbal irrigation protocol showed comparable antimicrobial efficacy to conventional agents, with added benefits of safety, biocompatibility, and reduced cytotoxicity, making it a promising natural alternative in pediatric endodontics.

A study was conducted to assess the nutritional value of foliage of fourteen multipurpose tree species from the drought-prone southern semi-arid regions of India, with the aim of evaluating their potential as livestock feed during lean period. The total ash content in the foliage ranged from 6.25% in Tamarindus indica to 19.08% in Salvadora persica. Crude protein (CP) content varied significantly among species, with Morus alba exhibiting the highest CP (19.48%), while T. indica had the lowest (5.16%). The foliage of Ficus virens exhibited the highest carbohydrate content, whereas Leucaena leucocephala had the lowest. Crude fiber content was lower in Leucaena leucocephala, Moringa oleifera, Sesbania grandiflora, and Azadirachta indica compared to other species. With the exception of T. indica, all species had CP levels above 7%, meeting the minimum protein requirement for ruminal cellulolytic bacteria. Calcium content ranged from 75.64 mg in Gliricidia sepium to 189.89 mg in S. persica, while magnesium content varied from 7.23 mg in Gliricidiasepium to 38.80 mg in Crescentia cujete. M. oleifera foliage was particularly rich in iron (2.42 mg) and zinc (0.26 mg). Lignin content was high in A. indica, M. alba, S. grandiflora, and S. persica. Condensed tannin (CT) and total phenol (TP) contents varied significantly among the tree foliage. Total digestible nutrients (TDN), non-fiber carbohydrates (NFC) and forage nutritive value (FNV) also differed significantly among tree species. S. grandiflora had the highest TDN, while T. indica had the lowest. M. oleifera foliage showed the highest in vitro true digestibility (IVTD) and metabolizable energy (ME). The forage nutritive value (FNV) ranged from 14.51 in T. indica to 36.22 in L. leucocephala. Overall, foliage from these trees shows potential as an alternate nutritious fodder supplement during the lean period.

Objective: To assess effect of herbal medicines compared to 0.12% chlorhexidine (CHX) in periodontitis, Materials and Methods: Review was adhered with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and MetaAnalysis (PRISMA) guidelines and registered in PROSPERO- CRD42024506918. From January 2000 to January 2025, research on the benefits of herbal medicines vs 0.12% CHX on periodontitis in terms of plaque index (PI), gingival index (GI), clinical attachment level (CAL), deep pocket (PPD), and colony forming unit (CFU) was found by searching electronic databases. Using Review Manager (RevMan) software version 5.3, the Cochrane risk of bias (ROB) -2 tool for randomized controlled trials (RCT) was employed to evaluate quality in all of its domains. The standardized mean difference (SMD) was used as a brief statistic measure with a random effect model (p&lt;0.05). Results: Meta-analysis was suitable for nine out of the fourteen studies that satisfied the criteria for selection in the qualitative synthesis. The quality evaluation determined that the risk of bias was moderate to low. A variety of herbs like Punica granatum, Herborals, Morus alba, Natural curcumin, Salvadora persica, Khadiradi vati, Dashansanskar churana, Neem and Apamarga, Ferula assa-foetida, Aloe vera, tea tree oil, Guava leaf extract, Ocimum sanctum were described. The pooled estimate through SMD suggested that herbal medicines were clinically and statistically superior to 0.12% CHX for parameters assessed at 15th and 30th day (p&lt;0.05). There was no asymmetry or heterogeneity in the funnel plot, which suggests that publication bias is not present. Conclusion: It was observed that herbs showed gradual improvement and are equally effective as CHX and could be used as an excellent adjunct to CHX in treating moderate to advanced periodontitis due to its minimal side effects

The aim of the research is to use in vitro plant tissue culture technique to determine the effect of growth regulators on the amount of callus produced. Callus was induced from the Salvadora persica or Miswak (Arak) plant by using a combination of Auxin (NAA) and Cytokinin (KIN). In the experiment, the plant parts (seeds, nodes, and leaves) were sterilized with mercury chloride (HgCl2) and sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) for two periods of time (5 and 10 minutes). The results showed the best material for sterilizing plant parts is (HgCl2). Different plant parts (leaf, internode, node, and root) were cultivated on MS medium accompanied by a combination of hormones of (NAA) and (KIN)with different concentrations, and after four weeks of cultivation, significant differences were recorded. The best combinations of plant growth regulators (PGEs) for callus induction rates (2.2%) from leaves at a combination of 1 KIN and 1 NAA mg/L. While internodes at 0 mg/L KIN, and 1 mg/L NAA gave 1.33%. The heights percentage rate (2.25%) of callus induction was obtained from nodes at (1 mg/L KIN, 2 mg/L NAA). The results showed the highest fresh weight of the callus that was obtained from the leaves was 0.4823 g. While the internodes gave 0.3195 g. whereas the height fresh weight of callus produced from nodes was 0.6791 g. As for the roots, there is no response for callus induction.