Russian Thinkers Research Articles

THE WORLDVIEW OF GRIGORY SKOVORODA AND PANTHEISM: AN EXPERIENCE OF UNDERSTANDING IN THE DOMESTIC HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY

The article discusses the nature of the worldview of G. Skovoroda, the first philosopher of the Russian Empire. The authors of this study consider the correlation of the pantheistic religious and philosophical doctrine and theology of Skovoroda. First of all, the article comprehensively analyses the arguments of opponents of the identification of Skovoroda’s philosophy and pantheism. In particular, the thesis on the difference between Skovoroda’s worldview and pantheism is considered on the basis of differences in ideas about God with the Dutch thinker Spinoza. At the same time, the authors present arguments against the credibility of this thesis. As a source, the article considers the philosophical treatises of G. Skovoroda, which set out the worldview of the Russian thinker. As follows from the analysis of Skovoroda’s writings, his teaching about God can be identified with the religious and philosophical doctrine of pantheism. In Skovoroda’s philosophy, God is not the creator, but an integral part of the universe - its immaterial mind and essence. Skovoroda considered substance as eternal and uncreated by God. The world is described as a mirage and a shadow of divinity. All this allows the authors to identify Skovoroda’s philosophy and idealistic pantheism.

Sociology and Metaphysics of Technology According to N. A. Berdyayev. In Commemoration of the Russian Thinker's 150th Birthday Anniversary

Sociology and Metaphysics of Technology According to N. A. Berdyayev. In Commemoration of the Russian Thinker's 150th Birthday Anniversary

Рецепция идей Блеза Паскаля в философии Льва Шестова

L.I. Shestov and B. Pascal are extremely popular both in our country and in the West. The philosophical ideas of Shestov and Pascal often overlap despite the different epochs of the thinkers' lives. However, the philosophical ideas of Shestov and Pascal often overlap despite the fact that they lived in different eras. Shestov felt this connection only in the late period of his work, which was undoubtedly associated with the Pascalian renaissance in European thought. However, Shestov still managed to say his word about the life and thought of the French philosopher. The article provides brief information about the period of Shestov's life, when he began to seriously study the philosophy of Pascal. In addition, information is provided about the response in the Russian and French intellectual public that Shestov’s short work on Pascal “The Night of Gethsemane” received. The author's main attention is focused on the analysis of the views expressed by Shestov in his works about the French thinker. Based on the results of the study, it was established that in spiritual experience Pascal can be called the philosophical double of Shestov. In the experiment of Pascal, Shestov was primarily interested in the experience of the abyss, which was so close to the Russian thinker. However, other important aspects of Pascal’s philosophy: his concept of «the God of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob», and not «the God of philosophers and scientists»; the French thinker's interest in the individual, etc., were also extremely interesting to Shestov. Thus, many of B. Pascal’s philosophical and religious ideas were developed in the works of Shestov.

Возможность сохранения традиционных социокультурных ориентиров человечества при реализации трансгуманистического проекта

The article is devoted to the search for the optimal path of controlled techno-bio-socio evolution, which will pre-serve the humanity’s traditional constants. Based on the previously conducted research, the author argues that compliance with the principle of continuity is possible only if the program of moderate transhumanism, which involves a delicate modernization of human nature while preserving its essence, is implemented. A similar transhumanist narrative is also evident in early 20th-century Russian scientific thought. The conducted compara-tive analysis of the main provisions of Russian philosophy of the Silver Age and the philosophy of moderate transhumanism allows us to assert that they coincide in terms of determining the limits of redesigning human nature. The humaneness and ethical elaboration of the ideas of Russian thinkers provide grounds for their use as socio-cultural guidelines for the philosophy of moderate transhumanism. The methodological basis of the study is the principles of systemic and comparative historical approaches. According to the author, these princi-ples enable the achievement of a synergistic effect, thereby enriching the concept of moderate transhuman-ism.

Русская идея: понятие, проблемное поле, современные интерпретации

The article is devoted to the concept of Russian idea and its interpretations in the works of Russian thinkers of the late 19th – early 21st century. At first, the author of the article analyzes the concepts of V.S. Solovyov and V.I. Ivanov, their main theses in works on the Russian idea. Then he proceeds to consider the book by N.A. Berdyaev “Russian idea”, which covers all ideological diver­sity in the works of Russian thinkers of the 19th – early 20th century. For N.A. Berdyaev “Russian idea” is the idea of community (“commonality”), “brotherhood of people and peoples”, turned to future universal salvation. On the example of the works of V.S. Solovyov, V.I. Ivanov and N.A. Berdyaev, the author of the article shows general problem field, which includes various as­pects of research in connection with the “Russian idea”. From Russian thinkers of the late 19th – first half of the 20th century the author of the article goes on to analyze works on the Russian idea of the beginning of the 21st century. In these studies, the authors not only follow the tradition established by their pre­decessors in understanding Russian idea, but try to make additions and offer their own interpretations (A.V. Gulyga, V.I. Gidirinsky, S.N. Kocherov, O.V. Pa­rilov, V.Yu. Kondratyev). An exception to the general direction is A.G. Dugin, proposing not just to explore Russian idea, but to reveal on the basis of M. Hei­degger’s philosophy the “Russian Beginning”, which will become the leading idea for philosophizing in Russia, will create conditions for the “possibility of Russian philosophy”. Modern interest in the topic of “Russian idea” shows its relevance and the need for further philosophical research

Элита и процесс ее воспроизводства в трудах Н. И. Кареева: актуальные аспекты социологического анализа

The article deals with the peculiarities of sociological views on the nature and role of elite strata in society of one of the outstanding Russian thinkers N. I. Kareev. His work and methodological positions defended by him cause ambiguous assessments among researchers of different scientific schools and directions. In his works he touched upon quite important and relevant problems of methodological foundations and principles of development, as well as the role of sociology, its interaction with other humanitarian and social sciences, first of all, history, scientific foundations of the theory of progress, the essence of social and historical process, social activity and the role of personality in these processes. The elite problematics was one of the important directions in his research. Declaring the principles of scientific analysis peculiar to positivism, but at the same time not refusing to use some other approaches, including some ideas of the subjective school in sociology, he presents his vision of the nature of the elite. Also, like one of the founders of the theory of elites V. Pareto, he identifies and characterizes two basic elite strata – the ruling elite and the stratum deprived of power, but having important social indicators, comprising heterogeneous groups of outstanding political figures, heroes, and major political personalities. This paper also draws attention to the analysis of the basic characteristics of the elite and the conditions of its reproduction. It is noted that developing the humanistic, value (meritocratic) approach, N. I. Kareev pays attention to such an important factor in the reproduction of elites as education.

Беструдовое общество: право на лень и новая мотивация труда

The article is devoted to the phenomenon of the “end of labour” and the con­sideration of this problem in modern social thought. Anti-labour rhetoric, which originated in the 19th century, finds its development in the 20th century in the dis­course of refusal to work and the prospect of preserving human individuation in the conditions of a technical society. As a result of the comparison of approaches to the issue of liberation from labour, the authors of the article come to the conclu­sion that the proposed concepts in assessing labour and its role in the development of society are inconsistent, the untimeliness of abandoning work (as a fundamental type of activity) and work-centrism (as a way of life). Insisting on the need for li­beration from labour, supporters of the rejection of work ethics and work culture leave out of discussion the possible consequences of the transition to a labour-free society. The proposed projects lack convincing options for effectively replacing work activity in its high social position and a model of a new work ethic based on the comprehensive improvement of a person. The article attempts to contrast ideas about the creative evolution of labour activity in the works of Russian thinkers of the twentieth century (A. Bogdanov, A. Gastev) with the post-labour discussion (N. Srnicek, A. Williams, group “Crisis”). An alternative to the discussion about a society without labour at the turn of the 2020s is the question of a new labour paradigm, a revision of the motivation of work and the preservation of its social significance, a new work ethic and individual planning for the future (A. Hines, B. Stigler, O. Nesterov, A. Pisarev, etc.)

Geniusz rozkładu. Nikołaj Bierdiajew wobec sztuki Pabla Picassa

Picasso occupied a very special place within Nicolai Berdyaev’s philosophical considerations. What motivated him to assess avant-garde art was an exhibition at the art gallery owned by Sergey Shchukin in 1914. The Russian thinker became personally acquainted with the exhibition. In his attitude towards Picasso’s art, Berdyaev shows the universal category of assessment which he had applied earlier to random artistic phenomena. The philosopher gives avant-garde art the status of the verifier of spiritual changes, at the same time pointing to the evolution of people’s attitude towards both the surrounding reality and themselves. By paying so much attention to the works of the Spanish artist, Berdyaev formulates a thesis concerning the spiritual crisis of the culture occurring in statu nascendi. That is to say that he perceives avant-garde art as, on the one hand, the foreshadowing of inevitable socio-political changes and, on the other hand, a graphic equivalent of the spiritual changes which are about to happen. In the role of category which should present the direction of assessing not only Picasso’s works, but also, in a broader sense, the historical and cultural changes, Berdyaev uses the terms of crisis, freedom, beauty, humanism and spirituality. The Russian philosopher considers Picasso a helpless exposer of illusions of materialized and synthesized beauty, whose paintings are the proof of the crisis occurring in art, self-awareness and, in a broader sense, also within humanity.

Sociology and Metaphysics of Technique by N.A. Berdyaev. To commemorate the 150th Anniversary of the Russian Thinker

The article examines the social philosophy of technique by N.A. Berdyaev, which he positions as Christian-personalistic-socialistic. Its main provisions are reconstructed, “metaphysical” and “sociological” aspects are identified. It is shown, firstly, that Berdyaev refers to metaphysics of technique as a criticism of the modern idea of man considering himself to be “homo faber” or a “tool-making animal”, which arose as a result of him violating the eternal order of values and idolizing technique. Secondly – that, according to Berdyaev, technique creates an ontologically “new reality”, which, in turn, determines the specifics of the modern “technical and economic” era. Thirdly, that a correct from a Christian standpoint, spiritualized attitude of man towards technique is a necessary and essential element of Berdyaev’s apocalyptic eschatology. Sociology of technique is interpreted by the Russian thinker as social philosophy and philosophy of history. In their light, on the one hand, the cultural and real-historical prerequisites for the emergence of the “technical” era are revealed — Berdyaev considers humanism and capitalism to be such, respectively — on the other hand, ways are proposed to overcome its essential flaws in the light of the personalistic-socialistic ideal of society. At the beginning of the article and at the conclusion the author emphasizes the relevance of Berdyaev’s philosophical ideas in the context of recent historical realities.

A VARIANT OF THE CIVILIZATIONAL APPROACH "RUSSIA ISLAND"

We continue the series of publications devoted to the civilizational approach and the theory of civiliza-tion developed by Russian thinkers. In the modern interpretation, the nature of civilization and its signs were very often justifi ed using the natural and climatic factor. In the work "The Island of Russia" under consideration, the principle of geographical determinism is presented in the most detail. V. L. Tsymbursky’s consideration of the ci-vilizational approach includes a detailed analysis of the island’s interaction with straits territories and an attempt to classify "straits".

В.Л. Гордин От Хаоса к изобретению Вселенной

The publication consists of two parts: an introduction to the problems of researching W.L. Gordin’s creative legacy and a translation of his article, published in 1934 in in E. Armand’s French anarcho-individualist journal “L’en dehors”, from French into Russian. Authors emphasize that it is impossible to write the biography of the Russian thinker until the emigrant period of his life is studied. In addition, the introduction provides the reader with a review of publications on the work of V.L. Gordin from 2014 to 2024. The conclusion is made about the rapid growth of interest among philosophers, historians and art historians in the ideas of the thinker. The authors also insist on the necessary integration of expert groups into a single community of researchers.

The Hope for the War as a Results of the Inactivity of Peace. The Russian Thought on the Great War (1914–1918)

The article analyzes the self interpretative views of Russian thinkers on the Great War. Philosophers, historians and publicists unanimously assessed the armed conflict of 1914–1918 as a great change from the state of peace understood as apathy. The war was supposed to give hope for a positive transformation of Russia. According to philosophers, the conflict between the Orthodox East and the West was to lead to a renewal of the European spirit. The war was to destroy the foundations of Western thinking: rationalism, atheism, nihilism, militarism, capitalism and bourgeoisism. The German Empire for the Russians was the embodiment of these features of Modernity. The mission of the East was to be the religious revival of Europe, the liberation of the Slavs and the conquest of Constantinople.

Уникальность концепции русского пути в ракурсе философского познания

This paper explores the influence of various philosophical movements, such as Orthodox Christianity, Slavophilism, Westernism, and Eurasianism, on the formation of the distinct path of Russian civilization. It examines the contribution of the Russian emigration after the October Revolution to the development of the national idea, as well as the role of leading Russian thinkers like Ivan A. Ilyin, Nikolai A. Berdyaev, among others, in both apologetics for and criticizing the Russian idea. The study convincingly develops the thesis that the Russian path is not merely a quest for national distinctiveness but also a messianic idea, combining idealism and pragmatism in the pursuit of a synthesis of Eastern and Western cultures. Moreover, it evaluates the concept of the Russian path through the lens of historical uniqueness, Russia's cultural calling, and in the context of contemporary issues such as globalization, political life, and cultural identity. The author of the article raises issues of criticism and realism in philosophy, focusing on debates among representatives of various philosophical movements regarding the role of science, religion and social order in the Russian idea. It centers on concepts such as conciliarity, collectivism, and Russia's messianic role, which are juxtaposed with the individualism and rationalism of Western traditions. In conclusion, the discourse surrounding the concept of the Russian path, as explored through various philosophical lenses, unveils a complex interplay between historical context, cultural heritage, and contemporary challenges. The synthesis of Eastern and Western thought, embodied in the Russian idea, reflects not only a quest for national identity but also a broader aspiration for global significance. This study underscores the ongoing relevance of philosophical inquiry in understanding the trajectory of Russian civilization, inviting further exploration into the dynamics of national identity, cultural distinctiveness, and the global mission of the Russian people.

Этика – война – медицина: научный портрет проблемы в современных публикациях

Background: The search for the meaning of war, the justification of violence, the acceptance of guilt and other moral problems worried Russian thinkers of the 19th century. Russian religious philosophy considers morally justified only war in defense of the highest spiritual shrines, which I.A. Ilyin, N.A. Berdyaev, L.P. Karsavin, A.A. Kersnovsky and others call the defense of the home-land, life and peace. Aim: To assess research interest in the problems of ethics of war, ethics of military medicine, biomedical ethics in the intellectual field of open databases of scientific publications and offer a predictive plot of this scientific direction. Materials and methods: A comparative analysis of open databases of scientific publications RSCI, NEB, CyberLeninka was carried out. The study of literature sources in the problem field under consideration made it possible to determine the directions of the research search using vectors – keywords "ethics", "war", "military medicine". Publications from the open CyberLeninka data-base were used and analyzed as a model scientific network database. Quantitative (number of publications) and qualitative (annota-tions) indicators were studied. To identify attitudes towards the ethical problems of war, a sociological survey of medical university students was conducted, N = 154, average age of respondents (19.2 ± 1.9) years. Standards of confidentiality and autonomy were respected for respondents. Results: An analysis of the distribution of scientific publications by area of the international OECD classifier demonstrates the in-terest of researchers in the problem field of "Philosophy, ethics, religious studies" in 2020–2024. In all search options (using the key-words "War and Ethics", "War and Medicine", "Military Medicine") there are a larger number of publications in this area than in other social or sociological sciences. In the search query "war and ethics", there were 2 times more such publications than others. A pilot sur-vey of future doctors confirms the interdisciplinary connection between the ethics of war and medicine. Conclusion: The study demonstrates modern scientific interest in the ethics of war when studying problems related to war and mili-tary medicine. It would be of interest to conduct a more detailed study of the relationship between the ethics of war and medical ethics (bio-ethics) as an element of the ethical training of future doctors for professional activities in extreme conditions of peace and war.

Русская мысль в письмах В.В. Розанова и П.П. Перцова. Новые материалы (1896–1918)

Review article presents two-volumes collection of epistles by V.V. Rozanov and P.P. Pertsov (1896–1918) published by the famous Publishing House Pushkinsky Dom (Saint Petersburg). It is the first ever published full edition of correspondence between two famous Russian thinkers – Petr Pertsov and Vasily Rozanov which has been done with great accuracy and on highly professional level. Two-volumes edition was made by the archival scholars from the Institute of Russian Literature (Pushkinsky Dom) from Saint Petersburg. The author of Introduction is E.I. Goncharova – director and the founder of Pushkinsky Dom Publishing House. O.L. Fetisenko together with the E.I. Goncharova are the editors, authors of commentaries and researchers of archival sources. The edition is characterizes by high level of polygraphy and excellent bibliographical apparatus. It includes: list of abbreviations, catalog of archives, periodicals, books and articles, collected works by Rozanov, archival photos, fragments of letters etc. This two-volumes edition contains also catalog of works by V.V. Rozanov and P.P. Pertsov plus annotated index of mentioned names. Commentaries is placed just after the published letters abd not at the end of the whole edition as one can find in printing practice sometimes.

Solidarization of Russian Society: a Historiographical Analysis

Introduction. At present the relevance of the problem of solidarity of Russian society is associated with the attempts of the countries of the Greater West to solve accumulated problems through building an image of the enemy, which makes it possible to consolidate national economies and effectively fight opposition forces within the country. In modern Russian philosophy, a number of approaches to developing the concept of solidarity of Russian society have developed. Despite this, many aspects of this problem still remain insufficiently studied. Thus, this study analyzes various approaches to defining the solidarity of society, which were formed in Russian philosophy; identifies the essential properties of solidarity, and substantiates the thesis about the need to form new tools and mechanisms of social order that will allow for the solidarity of society. The purpose of the presented research is a historiographic analysis of the concept of solidarity in relation to Russian reality. Methodology and sources. The methodological basis of this study is the principle of unity of the historical and logical, as well as methods of analysis and synthesis. There were used as sources the works of classics of Russian philosophical thought who developed the concept of solidarity (I.S. Aksakov, N.Ya. Danilevsky, etc.), as well as the works of modern Russian thinkers, such as Yu.V. Shkudunova, A.A. Efanov, allowing to identify the main aspects of the problem of solidarity of Russian society. Results and discussion. The authors of this article conducted a historiographical analysis of the concept of “solidarization”. During the analysis, the main essential properties of solidarity were identified, such as procedurality, value orientation, ideology, and complexity. The relevance of the traditions of Russian religious philosophy for the development of the problem of solidarity is also shown. The authors consider the solidarity of society as a set of political, economic and sociocultural processes aimed at uniting society around an integral system of values expressed by a single social ideology. Conclusion. The modern world is in a phase of political turbulence, which has a direct impact on all fundamental aspects of society. Their impact can be seen especially clearly in the example of Russian reality. In these conditions, the survival of Russia depends on the degree of unity of society as a guarantee of national security.

Rethinking Ukraine’s culture and history during the war

ABSTRACT Russia’s escalation of its eight-year war in Ukraine into a full-scale invasion in February 2022 was followed by war crimes and atrocities that failed to achieve their stated purpose. In Ukraine there was shock, horror, and trauma – but not demoralization. Writers and philosophers, psychologists, and artists responded quickly, giving expression to a range of emotions and suffering that swept through society, in an effort to restore meaning even as the war reduced much of Ukraine to a wasteland. This study traces the reflections of Ukrainian and Russian thinkers on Russia’s war in Ukraine, its psychological impact, and their search for remedies to trauma and the colonial legacy. The conclusion considers the social contributions that artists and historians are making toward understanding and processing the devastation caused by the war, dismantling its colonial and totalitarian underpinnings, promoting social healing and democratization in Ukraine.

Fictional faces of female suicide: Qualitative analysis of selected Russian-language texts of the school reader

IntroductionIsaiah Berlin’s (1948) exploration of the self-searching of Russian thinkers includes studies of the writers – Tolstoy and others (now – Russian-language texts of the school reader). These studies refute a widespread misconception about the relations between Russian writers and thinkers: namely, that in Russia literature and radical thought form two distinct traditions related only by mutual hostility. The works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Karamzin, Leskov, Ostrovsky, and of minor novelists too, are penetrated with a sense of their own time, of this or that particular social and historical milieu and its ideological content, to an even higher degree than the ‘social’ novels of the west. The personal characteristics of suicide victims, heroines of Russian literature, along with the gender aspects, deserve attention in suicidal behavior (SP) focus.ObjectivesTo study personal characteristics of suicide victims, heroines of fiction.MethodsQualitative analysis of selected Russian-language texts of the school reader.ResultsAt the dawn of literature, we have seen fiery heroines and tremulous victims in the arms of death. Аs psychology approach was developed, and we get acquainted with the tragiс backstory. Psychotypes of suicides are exaggerated and overlapped. «Hysterical»: manipulative, frigid nymphomaniac (e.g., Anna Karenina). «Freedom-loving rebel» (i.e., Katerina reincarnations from A. Ostrovsky) in conditions of excessive regulation. «She-Devil, or Rebel Without a Cause». The obsession with death turns into a criminal and a victim (e.g., «Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk» by N. Leskov, Turgenev’s Susanna or Klara Milich). The image of a vindictively furious («velvet and tiger claws») woman descends to the Victorian view of female self-will. «Mimosa» is a sensitive, dreamy person, unable to resist the hardships of life, dependent (dies with her beloved, objection). In suicide, the strength of weakness is the outcome of a humiliating life (e.g., Karamzin’s «Poor Liza», «A Gentle Creature» by F. Dostoevsky. The meaning of suicides is the following: a call (to compassion, salvation), a «cry for help», atonement for one’s (imaginary) – someone else’s (by proxy) guilt, and release from encumbrance.ConclusionsFiction and life are united by emotionally unstable characters and/or depression as markers of unsatisfactory resilience. The cultural diversity of gender patterns and interpretations of SP challenges the essentialist view that «femininity» and marriage are protective factors. SP patterns illustrate and complement the explanatory concepts of SP. The inner world of suicidal people is fascinating and contributes to the evidence-based optimism in the «patient-centric» crisis care model.Disclosure of InterestNone Declared

Принцип всеединства как основа идеи бессмертия в философии Ф.М. Достоевского и Вл.С. Соловьева

The article represents a study of F.M. Dostoevsky’s and V.S. Solovyov’s immortological ideas, which are insufficiently studied today. On the material of various publications of Dostoevsky, it is shown that he considered the idea of immortality as “the main and the most supreme idea of human existence”, since it is inherent in a perfect, final being, which implies an indissoluble unity. It is assumed that the sources of the writer’s immortalological ideas were the philosophical systems of I.G. Fichte, F.W.J. Schelling, K.G. Karus and G.T. Fechner. It was revealed that Dostoevsky considered active love and the idea of “absolute self-improvement” necessary for spiritual transformation and overcoming selfishness, leading to a violation of integrity and inevitable death. Based on the material of Solovyov's early works, it is shown that his views strongly coincided with the position of the writer. As it turned out, both Russian thinkers saw the possibility of a future life only in connection with Christianity, which differed significantly from traditional teaching. An overview of the concept of “true Christianity” is given, which presupposes, first of all, faith in the immortality of man and unity. Suffering is seen as a necessary driving force towards the conscious renunciation of one's own personality and the merging of humanity with the diversity of manifestations of the metaphysical essence. It is shown that an important condition for this is joint improvement, since individual efforts to transform the world are not enough. It is concluded that due to such transformation “free all-human unity, worldwide brotherhood in the name of Christ” will be established in the world. Undoubtedly, partly utopian in their basis, the ideas of the writer and philosopher were aimed at solving the spiritual problems of man of that time and humanity in general.

Leontiev and Napoleon III: Two Conservatism Tendencies of the Same Century

The subject of the study is the dispute between the Russian philosopher, K. Leontiev, and the French emperor, Napoleon III, regarding the meaning and orientation of historical events. The topicality of the study is determined by the importance of the problem of progress in the modern world and the need to take into account the entire range of previous approaches to it. The novelty is defined by the absence of works in which a comparison of the two analyzed approaches would be presented. The article uses the following methods: hermeneutic, phenomenological, and comparative historical. The policy of Napoleon III is characterized in the artistic works of Leontiev as well as in the works in philosophical and publicistic genres. In the novel Odysseus Polychroniades, the Second French Empire appears as a mechanical structure devoid of a spiritual core. In the autobiographical work Egyptian pigeon, the emperor appears as a usurper. In his philosophical and political writings, Leontiev focuses on the theory of cultural types. Napoleon III's France in this context serves as an illustration of the period of secondary mixing and simplification in the lives of civilizations. But its history is also important to Leontiev as a kind of reference point in the historical coordinate system, which allows us to compare the Western path with the fate of Russia. The Russian thinker strongly emphasized the connection between the history of his country and Byzantine principles. He saw its future in their preservation and support. Leontiev considered France, which rushed along the path of liberal egalitarianism, a decaying state characterized by decomposition and loss of originality and religiosity, as well as by the transition from complexity to a more primitive organization. Napoleon III, on the contrary, considered France the vanguard of civilization, and the principle of nationalities proclaimed by him was seen as the only reliable basis for international politics. Although Leontiev and Napoleon III do not have the same interpretations of progress, in their understanding of the general meaning of history and the laws of civilizational development both considered it necessary to introduce conservative elements into public life. The forecasts of the Russian philosopher regarding the future give more reason to name him (rather than the emperor) a prophet.