Russian Imperial Army Research Articles

Вексиллологические трофеи российской императорской армии в военных кампаниях против Наполеона

The article discusses the development of the vexillological complex of the Russian Imperial Army in the first quarter of the 19th century; and awarding regiments of the Russian Imperial Army for capturing French banners in military campaigns against Napoleon.

Officers from Central Russia — Participants in the Civil War on the Eastern Front: Combat Path from West to East

The paper considers the problem of relocation of the Russian Imperial Army officers from the western military actions theater of World War I to the eastern front of the Civil War. The work is based on the fates of officers from the central provinces of the Russian Empire (Voronezh, Kursk and Tambov), who were moved to the East by the maelstrom of "Great Troubles" events, having scattered them on different sides of the barricades. The author concludes that the channels of entry into the White Armies in the East were different. Some officers ended up behind the Urals during the so-called Great War, having been transferred there on duty. During the great changes that were brewing during the revolutionary period of February-October 1917 and the beginning of the Civil War, some officers reached out to their families in the east, wanting to ensure the safety of their kin. Others, having no direct ties to eastern Russia, rushed there with fellow officers from Siberia and the Far East, drawn by the principles of military brotherhood. For officers who sided with the revolution, the path was determined by a direct order, to which some were faithful to the end, and some were ready for treason. On the basis of the studied materials the author draws conclusions about the typical character of the time, reflected in the variety of fates of former officers of the imperial army, who fought in the East of the country during the era of great upheaval.

СОЦИАЛ-ДЕМОКРАТ, КАДЕТ, БЕЛЫЙ ОФИЦЕР: К БИОГРАФИИ СОВЕТСКОГО СЛУЖАЩЕГО ИВАНА ИВАНОВИЧА АЛИФАНОВА

This publication is an analytical review of the controversial and complex fate of Ivan Ivanovich Alifanov - a provincial Russian intellectual, social democrat, cadet, Bolshevik, officer of the Russian Imperial Army, White Guard, Soviet employee, victim of mass political repressions in the USSR. The purpose of study is to represent in the context of the military- anthropological vision of the scenario of adaptation of the "ordinary intellectual" to the conditions of social cataclysms of the first half of the 20th century. The methodological concept of the study, based on the characteristics of its genre, is represented by the simultaneous application of the anthropological approach, the theory of social mobility, biographical and comparative historical methods. The basis for the preparation of the article was a complex of previously unpublished sources from the funds of the Historical Archive, the Omsk Region, the State Archive of the Novosibirsk Region, and the archive of the Office of the Federal Security Service of Russia in the Omsk Region. The most informative sources are Soviet questionnaires, autobiographies of I.I. Alifanov, materials of the archival criminal case initiated against him. Some of these documents were in closed storage for a long period. In conclusion, the authors emphasize that the biography of I.I. Alifanov is an example of how the conditions of the military revolutionary era subjugate and, ultimately, break the life of a provincial Russian intellectual who did not fit into their realities. The biography studied is typical and raises the question of the need to study the conditions and possibilities for the adaptation of former white officers to the Soviet society. The work is addressed to a wide range of readers, including specialists in political and social history, researchers of the revolutionary movement, Russian (Imperial), white and Red armies, mass political repressions in the USSR.

Images of Germans and peoples of Austria-Hungary during the First World War based on the memoirs of Russian veterans

The purpose of the article is to analyze the transformations of the images of the Germans and the peoples of Austria-Hungary as military opponents of the Russian imperial army during the First World War through the prism of the memoirs of front-line soldiers. Research methods: historical-genetic, historical-comparative, method of content analysis. Main results. The pre-war images of Germans and the peoples of Austria-Hungary who lived in Russian society were studied; the memoirs of front-line soldiers were analyzed for the use of propaganda clichés or a critical attitude towards Russian information policy; the combat and moral and psychological characteristics of the German and Austro-Hungarian armies in the memoirs of Russian combatants of the First World War were investigated; the phenomenon of the collapse of the Russian front in 1917 is considered through the prism of transformations in the perception of the military opponent by Russian lower ranks and officers. Conclusions. The experience of the First World War showed the moral unpreparedness of Russian soldiers to engage in battle with the soldiers of Germany and Austria-Hungary at the initial stage of the confrontation due to the unhistorical nature of this conflict, the alliance between these states in the past. In view of this, Russian propaganda was designed to teach front-line soldiers to hate the new enemy. However, actual combat experience had a greater influence on the perception of the enemy than propaganda. Soldiers of Germany and Austria-Hungary appear through the prism of memoirs as those who are better technologically equipped, however, often capable of personal bravery and willpower, prone to subterfuge, accustomed to fighting in better living conditions than the Russians. Real combat experience contributed to the acquisition of human traits (both positive and negative) by the enemy in the imagination of Russian soldiers. This "humanization" of the enemy contributed to a rapprochement with him and became one of the factors of mass "fraternization" of soldiers and the disintegration of the front in 1917. Practical significance: the results of the study can be used in teaching the course "Social History of Europe" (university elective course at DNU named after Olesya Honchara). Originality: for the first time, the connection between the field of ideas of the mass of soldiers and the phenomenon of the disintegration of the Eastern Front of the First World War in 1917 was analyzed. Scientific novelty: the dynamics of transformations of the images of the military adversary in the environment of the Russian army during 1914–1917 are shown; analyzed a large array of memoirs of senior officers and lower ranks of the Russian army published either during the war or shortly after its end, which were not available to domestic researchers for a long time. Type of article: analytical.

Folwarki trynitarzy łuckich w latach 1799–1832

The possessions of Roman Catholic Church during the 18th and first half of 19th centuries consisted of many elements owned by: parishes, orders, chapters, seminaries and schools, hospitals, economics of diocesan bishops and bishops suffragans. Among the Orders existing in lands taken by Russian Empire in 18th century important role played the Order of the Most Holy Trinity and of the Captives. One of trinitarian monasteries have been located in Lutsk since the first half of 18th century. During this period monastery’s benefices consisted of sums, alms and incomes generated by estates. Between 1729–1842 Trinitarians of Lutsk owned three land estates. The 1st one contained two villages Jarowica and Wyszkowa, the 2nd some part of Boruchowa and the 3rd village Siekierzyca and three parts of Wólka Siekierzycka. Each of folwarks took care of agriculture and animal husbandry. Moreover the trinitarian’s subjects produced yarn. Annual income generated by land estates depended of many factors – natural ones as well as some depending of men’s will. In 1812 trinitarian’s villages have been plundered by the Russian Imperial Army. This event caused impoverishment of trinitarian peasants and financial troubles of the whole Lutsk monastery.

Equipment and Uniforms of the Russian Imperial Army after the War with Japan: Problematic Aspects

Equipment and Uniforms of the Russian Imperial Army after the War with Japan: Problematic Aspects

About the status of an army medical officer

The article presents the events of 1912–1913 that took place during the restructuring of the Military Medical Academy and the formation of the status of an army medical officer. The historical information about the role and duties of army medical officers in the Russian Imperial Army before the First World War is given.

Blank pages of the history of the Russian-Japanese war. Army medical officers

The article presents new information about army medical officers of the Russian Imperial Army and Navy who were killed, taken prisoner or reported missing during battlefield engagements of the Russian-Japanese War of 1904–1905.

Russian emigrants serving at the Military Geographic Institute in Belgrade from 1920 to 1957

In the first years after World War I, about 60,000 citizens of tsarist Russia, refugees from the civil war and the changes caused by the October Revolution, joined the newly created Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenians. Most of them were members of the middle and upper classes: mostly officers and members of the civic elite with university degrees. Some moved on soon after, to the west, and about 40,000 decided to stay in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenians. Their contribution to Serbian and Yugoslav society, science, art, culture, and other spheres of life is mostly known and well documented, as are their lives and the issues of refugee and emigrant life. There are numerous books, monographs, newspaper articles, films, and other material that testifies to the life, work, and contribution of Russian emigration to Serbia and Yugoslavia. However, even to the present day, untold stories about their lives can be revealed, such as the one we present in this article. The story of the work and contribution of Russian emigrants to the Military Geographic Institute in Belgrade is the subject of the present paper. These were mostly officers of the Russian Military Geodetic Service (Corps of Military Topographers). These findings were made thanks to a recent study by the Military Geographic Institute, whose comprehensive results are being presented to the general professional public for the first time. According to previous information, it was estimated that there were about thirty officers in the Russian Imperial Army. This research determined the number of at least 99 emigrants who worked at the Military Geographic Institute. Some worked for only a few months, others for several years, and some for more than 35 years. The research revealed that some of them became officers of the Yugoslav Army. Some of those who served in the Military Geographic Institute also gave a broader contribution to the geodetic service in Serbia and Yugoslavia.

Foreign Military Formations in Russia during the First World and Civil Wars

The article reveals one of the controversial topics in the history of the early 20th century — the participation of foreign military units in the First World War and the Civil War in Russia. The authors revealed the main points of the creation of national formations as part of the Russian imperial army. Particular attention is paid to the problem of choosing by the command and personnel of these units of their “place” in the conditions of the civil confrontation caused by the revolutionary upheavals of 1917 in the expanses of the former Russian Empire. This choice was driven by a number of important factors. These are the features of the internal structure and management that had developed within the units and subunits by October 1917; it is also a factor of being in a certain territory by the time the Bolsheviks came to power; this is the desire of the opposing governments to use national units as their strike forces at the time of the formation of the white and red armies. A detailed study and analysis of these historical plots becomes relevant in the field of studying the problems of the development of national movements in the critical period of national history.

К проблеме трудоустройства бывших офицеров армии Российской империи в РСФСР в 1918 – начале 1920-х гг. (на материалах Тамбовской губернии)

The establishment of the power of the Bolsheviks entailed the problem of social adaptation to the new political and socio-economic realities, first of all, representatives of the former privileged groups of the population, including former officers. An important component of this process was their work for the Soviet government. In Russian historiography, the issues of using former officers (military experts) on the fronts of the Civil War have been studied in sufficient detail. At the same time, there aren’t many studies that inspect the activities of this professional group of the population in rear military institutions and in the civil service. The study of this aspect makes it possible to significantly supplement the ideas about the position of the former officers in Soviet Russia. The purpose of the study is to analyze the structure of occupations of former officers of the Imperial Russian army on the territory of the Tambov province in the early years of Soviet power. The features of the civil and military service of former officers, areas of employment, the attitude of the party and state bodies of the new government, employers towards them are studied. The conclusion is formulated about the ambiguity of the process of integration of former officers of the Russian Imperial Army into the new Soviet society. In the early years, especially during the Civil War and intervention, the new government recruited former tsarist officers into the ranks of the Red Army, using their professional knowledge and combat experience, while continuing, meanwhile, to consider them “class aliens”.

Новые документы об аресте семьи генерала Н. Н. Стогова в 1919 г.

The publication touches upon the issue of political and social embedding in the conditions of Soviet Russia of representatives of the former generals and the General Staff of the Russian Imperial Army and members of their families, which is relevant in modern Russian historiography. In order to expand ideas on the designated topic, this paper for the first time introduces into scientific circulation the materials of the archival and investigative case against the family members of the head of the white underground in Moscow, General N. N. Stogov. The study, which is theoretically based on a biographical method, sheds light on the features of the repressive practice of the Cheka during the Civil War and on the history of the confrontation between the Chekists and the white underground in Moscow. The work is addressed to researchers of the events of the Revolution and the Civil War in Russia, military, social and political history.

ЮНКЕРА ОМСКИХ ШКОЛ ПРАПОРЩИКОВ В ГРАЖДАНСКОЙ ВОЙНЕ НА ВОСТОКЕ РОССИИ

This publication is an attempt to trace the collective fate of students (cadets) and the commanding staff of the 1st and 2nd Omsk schools for the training of infantry warrant officers in the period from November 1917, that is, from the moment the schools were disbanded in October and November and the anti-Bolshevik uprising 2nd Omsk school of warrant officers on November 1–3, 1917, until mid-1918, when the so-called “Detachment at the 2nd school of warrant officers” was formed in Omsk. The fates of individual officers are traced up to the mid-20s. The methodological concept of publication is a combination of an anthropological approach and a descriptive-narrative method. The source base in relation to the judicial privates and officers of the Omsk schools was made up of the published memoirs of M.M. Basov, materials of the Siberian periodicals of the period under review, the published office documentation of the organs of the OGPU of the Ukrainian SSR. Regarding the Detachment at the 2nd (Omsk) school of ensigns, new data was found in unpublished sources stored in the Russian State Military Archive (RGVA), in particular, fund no. 39498 “Office of the 2nd separate steppe Siberian corps” and fund no. 39617 “Headquarters of the Siberian army”. As a result of the study, it was possible to establish that a significant part of the students (cadets), graduates (warrant officers) and individual officers of Omsk schools by the beginning of the full-scale Civil War in Siberia in June 1918 were on the territory of Western Siberia, in particular, in Omsk. They formed the “core” of the so-called “Detachment at the 2nd school of ensigns”, on the basis of which the 3rd Steppe Siberian Rifle Regiment was formed in June 1918, which was later renamed the 15th Kurgan Siberian Rifle Regiment. Some participants in the events of November 1–3, 1917 in Omsk were subjected to investigation and trial in May 1918. In the conclusion, it is emphasized that for Omsk, the formation of the summer of 1918, the 2nd Omsk school for training infantry warrant officers became one of the army symbols of the anti-Bolshevik struggle. The publication is addressed to a wide range of readers, including specialists in the history of the Russian (imperial) army, the First World War and the Civil War, the white movement, and local historians.

Царицынская сторожевая линия и военно-политические изменения на юго-восточных границах России в 1720-х гг.

Introduction. The Tsaritsyn defense line has attracted the attention of historians since the 18th century, but so far, no special study of the history of the Tsaritsyn line in the 1720s has been undertaken. The period is of interest for its policy of strengthening the military-political influence of Russia in the Caspian region, with the Persian campaign undertaken and control over the movements of the Kalmyks increasing. The article aims to show the role of the Tsaritsyn defense line in these events. Materials and methods. The study intends to systematize and reconsider the information about the Tsaritsyn line presented in the historiography of the Persian campaign, in the history of the Kalmyks, and in the history of the regiments of the Russian imperial army, supplementing them with data of legislative acts and office documentation. Results. Tsaritsyn and the Tsaritsyn line were staging points on the path of the formation and movement of the Nizovoi (Lower), or Persian, Corps; practically all military units involved in the Persian campaign passed through the Tsaritsyn line, which was used for rear functions by the Corps as long as it existed. Tsaritsyn, the fortresses on the line, and the villages of the Don Cossacks closest to the line served as winter quarters for the Corps cavalry: here the dragoon regiments were re-equipped, and individual units were sent on missions along the southern borders of Russia. The Tsaritsyn line introduced serious changes in the life of the nomadic population of the Lower Volga region; passages through the line acquiring great military and political importance. Groups of Kalmyks who passed ‘inside’ turned out to be cut off from the Kuban and Crimeans and from other groups of Kalmyks. There was a symbolic meaning to the crossing of the Tsaritsyn line for Kalmyks who feared that their uluses would be taken away from them or they would be converted to Orthodoxy against their will. The study clarifies the data on the number of troops that served on the Tsaritsyn line in the 1720s. Constant was the presence of at least 500 Cossacks, sent on their mission by the Don army, as well as of several dragoon regiments. In the 1720s, units of the Kronshlots, Olonets, Vologda, Tobolsk, Moscow, Arkhangelsk, Dmitrov, and Saratov dragoon regiments served on the Tsaritsyn line from several months to several years. Conclusions. From the very first years of its construction, the Tsaritsyn line not only protected the southern borders of the Russian Empire, but also became an instrument of the imperial diplomatic and military-political influence on neighboring peoples and states.

Three Publications about Archaeology of a Segment of the First World War's Forgotten Eastern Front

While the horrors of the trench warfare on the Western Front in Belgium and France are part of the European cultural memory, to some degree the much more extensive and mobile Eastern Front of the 1914–1918 conflict has become the forgotten front (Die vergessene Front). Although for just over eleven months in 1914/15, the central part of a major front, some 1000 km long on which three million people died ran through the middle of what is now Poland, for a number of reasons the memory of this has there been all but erased from memory and from the cultural landscape.
 The reviewed three volumes are the result of a project that has attempted to address the poor state of historical memory of the momentous events and human drama that took place a century earlier on the segment of the front, 55 km west of Warsaw. Here, from mid-December 1914, the Russian Imperial army tried to hold back the eastward advance of the German troops on defences built along the Bzura and Rawka rivers. For the next seven months, the fighting here took the form of the same type of prolonged static trench warfare more familiar on the Western Front (the only place in the eastern sphere of war that this happened). The German army made every effort (including mining and several major gas attacks), to advance on Warsaw but failed to break through. It was only after the Great Retreat of the Russian army in the summer of 1915 that these defences were overrun and Warsaw fell.

РЕЛИГИОЗНО-НРАВСТВЕННОЕ ВОСПИТАНИЕ РУССКИХ ВОИНОВ ПРАВОСЛАВНОГО ВЕРОИСПОВЕДАНИЯ В КОНЦЕ XIX - НАЧАЛЕ XX ВВ

One of the consequences of the Great Reforms of Alexander II was the radical transformation of the Russian Imperial Army. At the same time, the development of social thought in Russia created the conditions for the penetration of social democratic propaganda into the soldier’s environment. As a result, the moral and psychological state of soldiers and discipline in the Russian army began to decline steadily at the turn of the century. Understanding of this problem stimulated the military department to make significant efforts aimed at working with personnel. However, due to a number of reasons, the planned results were not fully achieved.

Russian Propaganda During the First World War: Technologies and Forms

The purpose of the article is to analyse the use of political propaganda methods employed by the Russian Empire before and during the First World War, in particular, on the Ukrainian lands, which became a direct theatre of military operations and a field of confrontation between intelligence and counterintelligence services of belligerent powers, which exercised manipulative influence upon great masses of population and implemented special technologies for the formation of public opinion. The research methodology is based on the principles of objectivity, systematicity, dialectics, historicism and interdisciplinarity. The study is grounded on problemchronological, institutional and historical methods, as well as social psychology methods, used in propaganda practices. Scientific novelty: on the basis of printed materials: brochures, First World War periodicals, published posters and woodcuts (lubki prints), as well as memoirs of people, involved in the organization of propaganda campaigns, certain objects, technologies and forms of propaganda, in particular, the involvement of intelligence officers of the Russian Imperial Army in manipulative technologies, were defined. The widespread use of propaganda and counter-propaganda by the states that were the main players of the First World War, became a kind of hallmark of that war. In Russia, unlike other states, there were no special bodies and no such bodies were created later to influence public opinion in their own, hostile or neutral states. The peculiarity of the propaganda of the Russian Empire was the use of mainly constructive (positive) propaganda aimed at neutralizing social conflicts within the state, uniting the population and the authorities and their joint struggle against the enemy. The ideas of Pan-Slavism and Neo-Slavism were actively applied in the international realm. They were aimed at the unity of the Slavic world under the auspices of Russia as the defender of the Slavic peoples and the Orthodox Christian faith. The use of destructive propaganda technologies was aimed at creating the image of the “enemy” and uniting patriotic forces against it. At the same time, Russia failed to offer Slavic peoples of the empire, in particular Ukrainians, to realize their political aspirations in resolving the national issue; it did not feel a change of mood and did not restructure the content of propaganda rhetoric, which eventually led to its defeat in the information and psychological space.

HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE PERSIAN CAMPAIGN OF PETER THE GREAT 1722-1723 AND ITS RESULTS (TO THE 300TH ANNIVERSARY)

The article is devoted to the historiographic understanding of the problem of the Persian campaign of 1722–1723. Peter the Great and the stay of the Russian imperial army in the southwestern Caspian region in the first third of the 18th century. The work examines the process of the formation and evolution of the approaches of historians and historical thought on the problem for almost three centuries. Historiographic comprehension of the problem will make it possible to trace the dynamics of historical thought in the history of the Persian campaign, identify the most poorly developed aspects, show innovative assessments of authors of different historical eras, and update new plots. The relevance of this study is also due to the absence of a historiographical sketch even in the genre of an article on the history of the Persian campaign of Peter I. The pre-revolutionary historiography’s practice of studying the Persian campaign in the context of studying the wars of conquest of the Russian Empire in the Caucasus is analyzed. The works of military and civil historians of this period served a political purpose - to substantiate the advancement and establishment of the empire in the Caucasus region. The main attention was paid to the military-political side of the campaign, its foreign policy background. At the same time, the first special historical studies on the history of the campaign appeared, which are valuable historiographic sources. Many of them were written on the basis of handwritten documents from the personal archive of Peter I, some of which were later lost or became difficult to access. In the Soviet era, the study of various aspects of the campaign, associated with its prerequisites and reasons, the economic and economic development of the region, was significantly expanding, new documentary data were introduced into scientific circulation. Soviet historians adhered to the concept of the objectively progressive meaning of the annexation of the Caspian regions to the Russian Empire, regardless of whatever goals tsarism pursued. The Persian campaign of Peter I was assessed as the protection of the Caucasian peoples from the tyranny of Iran and Turkey. In the last two or three decades, in the study of the problem of the military-political campaign of 1722-1723. empire, there were significant successes associated with the development of new plots, using modern historical approaches, and the introduction into scientific circulation of a colossal fund of archival documents and narrative sources. At the same time, in the 1990s, there are attempts to revise the “Persian campaign”, to replace it with a new name - “Caspian campaign”, which has not been established outside the limits of regional Caucasian studies. At the present stage, researchers deepen and expand the existing scientific understanding of this problem by applying such scientific approaches as the history of everyday life, military-historical anthropology. In modern domestic historiography, there has been a tendency to study the historical memory of Dagestan society about the image of Peter I and to study the problem from the standpoint of the Russian-Persian-Ottoman borderland (frontier), which acted not only as a zone of conflict, resistance, but also the interaction of border communities and their elites.

“Troops without Banners”: History of 5th Infantry Corps of Russian Army during Reign of Nicholas I

The history of the 5th Infantry Corps of the Russian Imperial Army in 1831—1853 is considered in the article. The novelty of the research lies in the fact that for the first time a comprehensive analysis of the entire history of the 5th Corps, from the moment of its formation to the beginning of the Crimean War, was carried out. The author notes that the 5th corps solved the widest range of problems. The question is raised that the 5th corps carried out the tasks of the strategic reserve of the Russian Empire on the southern borders. The role of corps units in construction work in the Crimea, participation in the landing forces on the Bosporus, military operations in the Caucasus and Transylvania are analyzed. The author notes that in the early 1830s the corps had a dubious reputation. In particular, the infantry regiments of the fifth corps were accused of “Polish spirit” and cowardice in the battles of the Russian-Polish war of 1830—1831. It is emphasized that the reputation of the corps in the eyes of Emperor Nicholas I was gradually improving. The author claims that since the 1840s, the 5th Corps was already a reliable army unit in the eyes of the emperor. The author argues that the involvement of the “bad reputation” corps in solving strategic problems demonstrates the limited resources of the Russian Empire in the 1830s and 1840s.

МОСКВА — ХАРБИН: ЖИЗНЕННАЯ ОДИССЕЯ БЕЛОЭМИГРАНТА НИКОЛАЯ ГАЛКИНА (1895–1940)

This publication is an analytical review of the ambiguous and complex fate of Nikolai Gavriilovich Galkin, the son of a hereditary nobleman who became a career army officer who took an active part in the First World War and the Civil War, who consistently served in the Russian (imperial) army, and then anti-Bolshevik armed formations in the Russian Far East. The second half of the life of the captain N. G. Galkin was associated with living in China, where the hero of the publication emigrated for political and personal reasons. The aim of our research is to represent, in the context of military anthropology, the forms of adaptation of the «little man» to the conditions of social cataclysms. The methodological concept of the study, based on its genre characteristics, is based on the combined use of the anthropological approach, the theory of social mobility and the biographical method. The basis for the preparation of the article was a complex of previously unpublished sources from the funds of the State Archive of the Russian Federation, the Russian State Historical Archive, the Russian State Military Historical Archive, the Russian State Historical Archive of the Far East, the State Archive of the Republic of Tatarstan, the State Archive of the Khabarovsk Territory, the archive of the Federal Security Service of Russia in the Novosibirsk Region. Some of these sources were previously in secret storage. Photos and oral history (family information about the hero of the article) have an auxiliary role in the study. In conclusion, the authors emphasize that a conservative upbringing and worldview would not have allowed N.G. Galkin, who had persistent anti-Bolshevik convictions, to find himself in the conditions of Soviet society, and therefore, being in exile was for him the only way out in the conditions of the end of the Civil War and defeat anti- Soviet forces. The work is addressed to a wide range of readers, including specialists in the history of the Russian (imperial) army, the First World War and the Civil War, the White movement, the Harbin emigration, mass political repressions in the USSR in the post-war period.