Rural Indian Women Research Articles

Exposure to indoor air pollution and the cognitive functioning of elderly rural women: a cross-sectional study using LASI data, India

BackgroundThe majority of people in rural developing counties still rely on unclean and solid fuels for cooking, putting their health at risk. Adult and elderly women are most vulnerable due to prolonged exposure in cooking areas, and Indoor Air Pollution (IAP) may negatively impact their health and cognitive function. This study examines the effect of IAP on the cognitive function of middle-aged and elderly rural women in India.MethodsThe study utilized the data from the Longitudinal Ageing Study in India (LASI 2017–18, Wave-1). Bivariate analysis and multilevel linear regression models were applied to show the association between IAP and the cognitive abilities of rural women and results from regression were presented by beta coefficient (β) with 95% confidence interval (CI). Confounding factors such as age, education, health risk behaviours, marital status, monthly per capita consumption expenditure (MPCE), religion etc. were adjusted in the final model.ResultsThe study found that 18.71 percent of the rural women (n = 3,740) lived in Indoor Air Pollution exposed households. IAP was significantly found to be associated with the cognitive functional abilities among the middle and older aged rural women. Middle and older aged rural women exposed to IAP had lower cognitive functional abilities than non-exposed women. Comparing to the non-exposed group, the cognitive score was worse for those exposed to IAP in both the unadjusted (β = -1.96; 95%CI: -2.22 to -1.71) and the adjusted (β = -0.72; 95%CI: -0.92 to -0.51) models. Elderly rural women from lower socioeconomic backgrounds were more likely to have cognitive impairment as a result of IAP.ConclusionFindings revealed that IAP from solid fuels could significantly affect the cognitive health of elderly rural women in India, indicating the need for immediate intervention efforts to reduce the use of solid fuels, IAP and associated health problems.

Gender differences in cognitive performance among health volunteers of SANSCOG cohort

AbstractBackgroundWomen are at higher risk of AD probably due to longer life span. However, differences in cognitive performance across gender among normal aging individuals is inconclusive. Srinivaspura Aging, Neuro Senescence and COGnition (SANSCOG) is a longitudinal study in healthy aging individuals in a town located near Bangalore, India.MethodOur objective was to compare cognitive performances at baseline assessment measured by COGNITO battery and HMSE between men and women participants of SANSCOG cohort who did not have dementia.ResultIn a sample of 2354 individuals, 1141 (48.5%) were women. Men were older and had more years of education when compared to women. Generalized linear models were constructed which used age and education as confounding variables revealed that males performed better than females on global cognition (β = ‐0.62, p < 0.001). When we examined individual domains, men achieved better scores in visuospatial domain and attention domain, however, women achieved better scores in memory domain. In the language domain, females scored more than males in semantic association test but males scored more in semantic fluency. There was no difference found in executive function domain.ConclusionWe have demonstrated that healthy rural Indian women perform poorly in global cognition and attention suggesting that they are at greater risk of developing dementia.

Comprehensive assessment of age-specific mortality rate and its incremental changes using a composite measure: A sub-national analysis of rural Indian women.

Diverse socio-economic and cultural issues contribute to adverse health outcomes and increased mortality rates among rural Indian women across different age categories. The present study aims to comprehensively assess age-specific mortality rates (ASMR) and their temporal trends using a composite measure at the sub-national level for rural Indian females to capture cross-state differences. A total of 19 states were included in the study to construct a composite age-specific mortality index for 2011 (base year) and 2018 (reference year) and examine the incremental changes in the index values across these years at the sub-national level in India. Sub-index values were calculated for each component age group and were subsequently used to compute the composite ASMR index using the geometric mean method. Based on the incremental changes, the performance of states was categorized into four different typologies. Improvement in mortality index scores in the 0-4 years age group was documented for all states. The mortality rates for the 60+ age group were recorded to be high for all states. Kerala emerged as the overall top performer in terms of mortality index scores, while Bihar and Jharkhand were at the bottom of the mortality index table. The overall mortality composite score has shown minor improvement from base year to reference year at all India level. An overall reduction in the mortality rates of rural Indian women has been observed over the years in India. However, in states like Bihar and Jharkhand, mortality is high and has considerable scope for improvement. The success of public health interventions to reduce the under-five mortality rate is evident as the female rural mortality rates have reduced sizably for all states. Nevertheless, there is still sizable scope for reducing mortality rates for other component age groups. Additionally, there is a need to divert attention toward the female geriatric (60+ years) population as the mortality rates are still high.

Menstrual hygiene practices among adolescent women in rural India: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundExclusive use of hygienic methods (sanitary napkins, locally prepared napkins, tampons, and menstrual cups) to prevent the visibility of bloodstains during menstruation is still considerably low among adolescent women in rural India. However, no prior research has explored the prevalence and determinants of exclusive hygienic methods among rural Indian adolescent women. To address this gap, this study examines the factors affecting adolescent women’s exclusive use of hygienic methods in rural India. Additionally, this study explores state- and district-level geographical disparities in the exclusive use of hygienic methods among adolescent women in rural India.MethodsInformation on 95,551 adolescent women from rural India from the latest round of National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) was analyzed. Bivariate statistics and multilevel logistic regression analysis were used to assess the Individual- and community-level factors associated with exclusive use of hygienic methods among adolescent women in rural India. Choropleth maps were used to discern the geographical disparities in the exclusive use of hygienic methods.ResultsIn rural India, only 42% of adolescent women exclusively used hygienic methods, with substantial geographic disparities at the state and district levels. At the state level, the exclusive use of hygienic methods varied from 23% in Uttar Pradesh to 85% in Tamil Nadu. Even greater variation was observed at the district level. There was a clear north-south divide in the exclusive use of hygienic methods among adolescent women in rural India. The results of multilevel logistic regression indicated a considerable amount of variation in the exclusive use of hygienic methods at community level which further reduced when controlled for individual and community-level factors. Rural Indian adolescent women with higher education (AOR:3.20, 95% CI: 2.81–3.64), from general category (AOR: 1.14, 95% CI: 1.07–1.21), with medium mass media exposure (AOR: 1.43, 95% CI: 1.35–1.51), and from richest wealth quintile (AOR: 3.98, 95% CI: 3.69–4.30) were more likely to use hygienic methods exclusively.ConclusionWide differential across biodemographic and socioeconomic groups, and substantial geographic disparities at state- and district-level in the exclusive use of hygienic methods suggests a need to adopt context-specific interventions for adolescent women in rural India. Distribution of subsidized or free menstrual hygiene methods to disadvantaged adolescent women, and in the low-prevalence districts may increase the level of exclusive use of hygienic methods remarkably.

Gender and the COVID-19 pandemic: Multinational research indicate that we must support and compensate LMIC women's leadership in crises.

Gender and the COVID-19 pandemic: Multinational research indicate that we must support and compensate LMIC women's leadership in crises.

AN ANALYTICAL STUDY RELATED TO WOMEN DAIRY COOPERATIVES IN GUJARAT

Dairying is an important source of income for many rural women in India, particularly those who live in the countryside. Female employees in the animal husbandry industry contribute significantly to India's economy, which cannot be understated. Women's empowerment has been quantified, assessed, and defined in several ways since it is typically considered a major aspect of the well-being of women and their families. Observation is impossible, but it is possible to approach it. Dairy cooperatives for women are part of the Women Dairy Development Project (WDDP), which was designed not only to generate income for the women involved but also to train them in topics like scientific management of milking animals and health and environmental concerns, as well as kitchen gardening and food preservation techniques as well as ways to generate income. On the socio-cultural level, Gujarat is one of India's most economically developed areas, and class and gender are the primary factors that influence the socio-economic condition of distinct communities. Since this state was chosen for the study, the data was gathered using an interview schedule, and the appropriate and conventional statistical procedures were used to analyze it. The primary goal of the study is to examine how dairy cooperatives might better empower its female members. In the study the researcher has examined the data of 235 respondents. Gender, educational attainment, family structure, and occupation are all considered by the researcher. The findings indicate that Socio-Economic Empowerment is statically significate with Education qualification and is not significant to the gender and family type and is negatively insignificant to Occupation.

Understanding the role of groundwater in the lives of rural women in India

AbstractGroundwater will be a critical future resource for rural India, given climate change and increased competition for water, especially for drinking water supplies, agriculture, and livelihood. The possibilities of groundwater resource development, use, and management have been widely discussed in the global and Indian contexts. However, most studies so far focused on scientific perspectives and not many on understanding the societal and gender aspects. Women are the providers of drinking water in rural India and also carry with them a quest for equality and respect. It is important to examine how the government policies, power, and responsibility for rural women in a traditional patriarchal society are impacted by the availability and access to groundwater. The main aim of this article is to examine the water challenges of Indian rural women in their routine life and discuss the impacts of depleting groundwater resources on their education, health and livelihood of their families. It also examines government policies, initiatives, and strategies that can potentially involve women in achieving sustainable water futures. The study indicates that poverty can impose gender roles in the family and society. Women's dilemmas differ not only in respect of monetary costs, but the challenges they face in terms of education, health, safety, and well‐being due to water scarcity. There is often a lack of suitable policies to overcome gender inequality. In some instances, policies might be reasonably good, but inequality continues because of weak policy implementation and other factors. Therefore, we need to devise policies and strategies that can be effectively implemented, raise awareness of gender equality, and create opportunities for women in decision making, program development, and implementation at all levels of government.

A Family-Centered Sexual Health Intervention to Promote Cervical Cancer Screening Uptake Among Low-Income Rural Women in India: Protocol for a Community-Based Mixed Methods Pilot Study.

BackgroundHuman papillomavirus (HPV) is the primary cause of cervical cancer, which is preventable through screening and early treatment. The Papanicolaou (Pap) test and visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA), which are traditionally performed in clinical settings, have been used effectively to screen for cervical cancer and precancerous changes and reduce cervical cancer mortality in high-income countries for many decades. However, these screening methods are not easily accessible to women living in low- and middle-income countries, especially women living in rural areas.ObjectiveThe project will use HPV self-sampling, which will be supported by a sexual health literacy intervention, to increase rural women’s participation in cervical cancer screening. The objectives are to determine the effectiveness of this program in (1) increasing sexual health literacy, (2) reducing the gendered stigma of HPV and cervical cancer, and (3) promoting cervical cancer screening by using HPV self-sampling.MethodsThe pilot study will use a community-based, family-centered, mixed methods design. We will recruit 120 women aged 30 to 69 years who are underscreened or were never screened for cervical cancer, along with 120 supportive male relatives or friends from 3 low-income rural/tribal villages in Maharashtra, India. Participants will attend gender-specific sexual health education sessions, followed by a movie matinee. Data will be collected through an interviewer-administered questionnaire before and after sexual health education sessions. The questionnaire will include items on social demographics, medical histories, attitudes, sexual health stigma, cervical cancer knowledge, and screening practices. Women will self-select whether to use HPV self-sampling. Those who do not may undergo a Pap test or VIA. Participants’ views regarding barriers and facilitators and their suggestions for improving access and uptake will also be elicited. This protocol was approved by the research ethics boards of Toronto Metropolitan University (formerly known as Ryerson University; reference number: REB 2020-104) and Tata Memorial Center (reference number: OIEC/3786/2021 /00003).ResultsThe Preventing Cervical Cancer in India Through Self-Sampling study was funded in January 2020 for 15 months. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the project was extended by 1 year. The study outcome measures will include changes in knowledge and attitudes about cervical cancer screening, the proportion of participants who self-select into each cohort, the proportion of positive test results in each cohort, and the proportion of participants with confirmed cervical cancer. Women’s experiences regarding barriers and facilitators of screening uptake will be captured.ConclusionsOur multifaceted work could lead to reduced cervical cancer mortality and morbidity and increased community capacity in sexual health promotion and cervical cancer prevention. The insights and lessons learned from our project can be used to inform the adaptation and scale-up of HPV self-sampling among women across India and in other countries; promote collective commitment to family-centered wellness; and support women to make healthful, personalized cervical screening decisions.International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)PRR1-10.2196/35093

Critical Analysis of the Implementation of Clean India Mission in the Rural Areas: A Gender Perspective

ABSTRACT After completing Clean India Mission’s first phase, the government declared the campaign a success and set out plans to implement the second phase. However, emerging evidence has questioned the claim’s validity as open defecation remains a reality in the country. Acknowledging the well-established link between sanitation and gender, this study has looked into the campaign through a gender lens. Based on a discourse analysis, it critically examines the implementation phase of the campaign by analyzing how the mission developed treatises about women’s group identity, pursued women’s empowerment, and created gender-sensitive messaging. This study concludes that the campaign did not pursue its gendered objectives properly; from the policy level to the implementation, the campaign failed to – i) address existing differences within different groups of women in rural India and ii) disseminate gender-sensitive messaging. Although the campaign created some foundations for women’s empowerment, there remains untapped potential.

Granular Activisms

ABSTRACTIn this article, I reflect on the collaborative multimodal ethnography that I conducted in Badhuli village with Aaji, a lower‐caste storyteller, singer, healer, and rice farmer. In addition to highlighting Aaji's life story and her Bhojpuri singing practice, the research project involved facilitating performative spaces for women to exchange, rehearse, film, and digitally share their vocal repertoires with other community members across gender, caste, religion, and generation. Through an analysis of multimodal ethnographic materials, this article argues that rural north Indian women's vocal traditions and performances are more than “everyday acts of resistance” (Scott 1985). Specifically, I combine Barthe's concept of “grain” of voice (1977) with recent scholarship on political activism and theories of voice and vocality (Eidsheim 2008; Schlichter 2011). I propose the new notion of “granular activism,” that is, grounded in the intermingling and exchange of women's vocal traditions. I conclude by demonstrating Aaji's radically activist role in re‐imagining Bhojpuri inter‐gender and inter‐caste dynamics through vocal traditions.

Panchayat Raj Institutions and Empowerment of Dalit Women in Rural India

Panchayat Raj Institutions and Empowerment of Dalit Women in Rural India

Non-iron Deficiency Anemia in Rural Indian Women: A Cross-Sectional Study.

IntroductionAnemia is an important public health concern, affecting almost 25% of the global population. In India, these statistics are even more worrisome with more than half of the children, non-pregnant and pregnant women being affected by the disease. Though the major cause of anemia is iron deficiency, other causes cannot be neglected considering the magnitude of the problem. The present study was designed to estimate the prevalence of non-iron deficiency anemia (NIDA) in Devbhoomi Dwarka District of Gujarat.MethodsFor this cross-sectional study, total of 258 mothers (antenatal and postnatal) were enrolled from 27 primary health centers. Apart from demographic details and obstetric history, hemoglobin and ferritin levels were measured from the participant’s blood after obtaining consent. Clinical information such as the history of recent illness and fever were also noted through questionnaires. Prevalence was anemia was calculated using a standard threshold of blood hemoglobin and NIDM was defined using ferritin levels.ResultsAs per hemoglobin levels, anemia was present in 65.9% of the mothers, which was relatively higher in antenatal women (90%) as compared to postnatal women (57%). Ferritin levels showed that out of this total anemic mothers, 61.8% (105/258) have normal ferritin levels indicating the presence of non-iron deficiency. Trimester-wise analysis of anemia in AN showed that NIDM prevalence increases with increasing trimester in contrast to IDA where a considerable reduction was found with iron supplementation.ConclusionThe study indicated that two out of every three women were anemic and only one out of four were anemic with depleted iron storage. These findings have important policy implications as in India the anemia control programs address only iron deficiency anemia and not NIDA. The development of a framework for diagnosis and appropriate treatment can be recommended for integration into national guidelines.

A study on awareness of women policies in rural areas

This paper deals with the general status of the rural Indian women and the Awareness of women Policies in rural areas and impact of women Policies on rural women. Women Plays vital role in our Indian Society. Rural women play a key role in supporting their households and communities in achieving food and nutrition security, generating income, and improving rural livelihoods and overall well-being. They contribute to agriculture and rural enterprises and fuel local and global economies. In concern Government has taken so many Programmes and Policies for women empowerment. The National Policy on Empowerment of Women adopted in 2001 states that All forms of violence against women, physical and mental, whether at domestic or societal levels, including those arising from customs, traditions or accepted practices shall be dealt with effectively with a view to eliminate its incidence. However, some positive intentions of the ground-level officials and the awareness of the beneficiaries can really bring in a revolution in the lives of Indian rural women. The Study is Practical and Theoretical oriented. The Study is based on Primary and secondary data sources. The necessary information about the Policies for Women Empowerment and its various components are collected from Books, Journals, Internet Source or related topic. The Researcher is going to study about Awareness of Women Policies in rural areas. The Research Work includes I. Introduction II. Methodology III. Women Specific Policies in India IV. Conclusion.etc

SP11.11 Developing the Mobile App ‘ABCs of Breast Health’ - Pioneering Digital Innovation to raise awareness of Breast Health in India

Abstract Aims Breast cancer is the most common cancer affecting women, both in India & the world. Due to a lack of awareness and the absence of an organised population-based screening programme in India, more than 60% of breast cancers present in the advanced stages, with most succumbing to the illness within a year of being diagnosed. This mobile app aims to empower people about various aspects of Breast cancer & Benign breast disease explained in simple, easy-to-understand format. Methods To help address these striking realities, I worked with a Breast Cancer Charity based out of India, to create the Mobile App - ‘ABC's of Breast Health’ - available in English and 11 regional Indian Languages. The app has an interactive ‘Myths & Facts’ section which is aimed at debunking many of the common myths surrounding breast cancer and ensuring that users are well informed with accurate information, thus filling a huge void in the delivery of Breast Health Care in India where counselling is not given much importance. A dedicated breast health helpline was launched in 2021 to further support users. Results This App is South Asia's First Mobile App on Breast Health and is also the World's first breast health app available in so many languages. Within the first month of its launch, it recorded 9000+ downloads. Conclusion The content of the app in 11 commonly spoken regional languages has ensured that accurate information relating to breast health is accessed by women in rural India, where 70% of the population resides.

Assessment of Quality of Life in Patients of Mastectomy With Chemotherapy.

Background: Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers in India as well as the world. In India, 48% of patients with breast cancer are below 50 years of age, indicating a huge age shift in the last 25 years. Breast cancer in an early age group increased the five-year survival rate and increased life expectancy has created a large group of breast cancer survivors who battle scars of disease as well as treatment. Standardized multimodal treatment is either not affordable or not available, so the breast conservation surgery rate is very low. Mastectomy is still the most common modality of treatment, particularly in rural areas. In addition to psychological, social, economic, and family barriers to obtaining the diagnosis and treatment needed, economic barriers like the cost of travel and lost wages are important factors influencing the choice of treatment. Mastectomy represents a deep burden for women with breast cancer. Very little is known about the psychological consequences over time and the quality of life (QOL) of women so treated, with or without breast reconstruction. Conflicting literature is available regarding QOL after mastectomy. The survival rates of breast cancer are increasing. They are reported in the range of 80-90% in western countries while in the range of 60% in the Indian scenario. With high survival rates in cancer, the focus needs to shift from mortality indicators to QOL indicators. The QOL that these survivors experience is a comparatively newer domain of study. Though there are many instruments for assessment of breast QOL of breast cancer patients with numerous studies in western literature, QOL studies in Indian rural population are far less, and urban studies cannot be extrapolated because the method of treatment differs, with breast conservation being more common in urban population. Hence, the present study is undertaken to assess the QOL in patients who have undergone mastectomy and ongoing chemotherapy or completed chemotherapy recently using a relatively newer instrument, i.e., the Quality of Life Instrument - Breast Cancer Patient version.Methodology: The present study was a cross-sectional study conducted at a rural tertiary healthcare center on mastectomy patients attending the outpatient department and admitted to the hospital. All the female patients of carcinoma breast treated with a mastectomy who were receiving the adjuvant or neoadjuvant chemotherapy or were within one year of completion of chemotherapy irrespective of age at diagnosis were included in this study. The assessment was performed by interview method using a questionnaire.Results: In this study, 44.90% of the patients were <50 years old and 55.10% were more than 50 years old. Among them, 28.57% were illiterate while only 20.41% had graduate education. The majority (61.22%) were from the low socioeconomic class. Majority of women presented in the late stages of the disease, with 61.22% presenting in the third stage and only three (6.12%) presenting in the first stage of the disease. The overall global QOL score was 49 ± 2.6 and fear was assessed. Patients scored better in the physical, psychological, social, and spiritual domains, with an average score of more than 50. The worst scores were observed among distress of illness or treatment.Conclusions: The present study shows that the average QOL scores in rural Indian women after mastectomy are moderate. Global scores and other indicators show moderate QOL.

Breast Cancer Survivorship among Indian Women: An Overview

Breast and cervical cancers are the two most common cancers among Indian women. Due to the improved diagnosis and treatment modalities, survival rates have been steadily increasing. Diagnosis and treatment of cancer bring many physical and psychological changes. However, the irony is that the treating team and family members tend to focus on the treatment of cancer. This review paper made a modest attempt to explore the availability of published literature on breast cancer survivorship health issues from an Indian perspective. It also aims to delineate the differences in the survivorship needs of rural and urban Indian women. There is a paucity of literature on breast cancer survivorship and its issues. The majority of the issues were related to physical problems secondary to cancer treatment. Softer issues such as information needs, counselling, body image alterations, changes in clothing, avoidance of society, mental distress, support, body image disturbance, and decreased sexual desires.

The role of social capital in developing sustainable micro-entrepreneurship among rural women in India: a theoretical framework

Objective of the Study: To analyze the role of social capital in developing sustainable micro-entrepreneurship among rural women. In addition, it also interprets the conceptual understanding of social capital, micro-entrepreneurship development, and the determinants that promote micro-entrepreneurship have been discussed. Relevance/Originality: There are numerous ways to achieve entrepreneurship, but social capital is one way to develop entrepreneurship. Social capital consists of mutual trust, understanding, reciprocity, social relation, collective actions, etc., among its group members.Methodology/Approach: This article presents a conceptual, theoretical framework by scrutinizing the archive literature to comprehend social capital's role in developing sustainable micro-entrepreneurship. Three forms of social capital, namely Self Help Group, SHG federation, and NGO, have been considered for this study. These social capitals then correlate with each of the indicators of micro-entrepreneurship identified and examined the role of social capital in developing sustainable micro-entrepreneurship among rural women.Main Results: Three forms of social capital such as SHG, SHG federation, and NGO that have been taken for this study, contributes to sustainable micro-entrepreneurship in various ways, i.e. SHG and SHG federation help in achieving social factors and financial inclusion, whereas NGOs provide entrepreneurial training and suitable business network for the women-owned enterprises. Theoretical/Methodological contributions: This study contributes to developing a theoretical framework by analyzing the pieces of literature that contribute to sustainable micro-entrepreneurship development through social capital. Social/management contributions: Social capital promotes sustainable micro-entrepreneurship, which leads to the employment generation, generates regular sources of income, addresses multiple social and economic issues, and promotes a better means of livelihood for rural women.

Caste and COVID-19: Psychosocial disparities amongst rural Indian women during the coronavirus pandemic.

The COVID‐19 pandemic has exacerbated preexisting mental health disparities. In India, marginalization based on caste membership, gender, and rural residence are critical determinants of inequity across the lifespan. Guided by the theoretical frameworks of minority stress and intersectionality, this study examined caste‐based disparities in fear of coronavirus (FOC), mental health symptoms, and perceived loneliness amongst rural women in north India during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Participants (N = 316) completed self‐report measures and were classified into three groups based on their responses: General caste (GC, n = 124), other backward castes (OBC, n = 122), and scheduled caste or tribe (SC/ST, n = 71). Using a three‐way ANOVA and Tukey t‐tests, women in SC/ST and OBC groups reported greater FOC (OBC d = .37; SC/ST d = .40) and greater mental health symptoms (OBC d = .58; SC/ST d = .43) relative to the GC group. OBC, but not SC/ST, group also reported higher perceived loneliness (d = .32). The results were consistent after adjusting for demographic variables such as wealth and highlight caste as an important social determinant for well‐being during the COVID‐19 pandemic amongst rural Indian women.

Job Guarantee as Tool for Women’s Empowerment: Propensity Score Matching Analysis

Women&amp;rsquo;s empowerment relies on access to resources routed through micro-credit, cash transfers, self-employment, or wage-based employment. Educational qualifications such as formal education or vocational training provide the routes for employment. However, the Indian job guarantee program Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) ensures a minimum of 100 days of job guarantee to anyone willing to work without any eligibility criteria related to formal education. While gendered provisions in the program are intended to encourage women&amp;rsquo;s participation to make them self-reliant, the safety net features also protect their dignity. Therefore, aspects related to women&amp;#39;s empowerment, such as their more significant say in household decision-making, may likely be impacted by the program. In addition, the program provides institutional support to women and access to resources through the wages earned. Analysis based on the robust propensity score matching analysis suggests that the women have been empowered from the point of view of household decision making. A similar analysis also holds for the women from the vulnerable sections of society. Hence, although intended for poverty alleviation, the programme acts as a tool for empowering rural women in India.

Feminism in the Novels of Kamala Markandaya with special reference to Nectar in a Sieve

Kamala Markandaya stands outstanding and aloof from all women writers.She is a distinguished woman novelist who ranks with eminent Indian English Novelists like Anita Desai, Mulk Raj Anand, Raja Rao etc. Markandaya‟s novels depict women as the centre of concern. She painted her novels with sufferings and hardships faced by women folk. Being a woman novelist, her debut novel Nectar in a Sieve and highlight the problems faced by Indian rural women. The major concern in her works is the identity crisis of women. Her novels are dominant with femininevoices and throw a massive light on the struggle of rural Indian wives.