Rural Electrification Program Research Articles

Optimization and techno-economic analysis of hybrid renewable energy systems for the electrification of remote areas

The welfare of the villages is one of the primary objectives of the rural electrification programmes. Compared to electrifying urban regions, electrifying rural areas is more expensive. Energy requirements in rural areas can be met using hybrid energy technologies. This study proposes a cost-effective power solution to reduce the net present cost (NPC), cost of energy (COE), unmet loads and CO2 emissions. Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO) and Homer Pro are used to optimize the size of the components of the system. The combination of solar, wind and biogas with a battery storage system is cost-effective with zero unmet loads. Of the three combinations considered, the values of COE and NPC for combination-1 were 0.156 ($/kWh) and $2.05 M respectively. The comparative analysis of optimization between the GWO technique and Homer Pro carried out shows that the value of COE and NPC are reduced by 5.45% and 3.30% respectively.

Electrification and economic growth: Evidence from china's rural primary electrification program

China implemented the Rural Primary Electrification Program in the 1980s and 1990s with the aim of accelerating rural electrification through the use of small hydropower. This study delves into the economic impact of this program, shedding light on the role of rural electrification in China's development. Using a difference-in-differences model, we find that after the completion of the electrification program, the GDP per capita of the pilot counties increased by an additional 5.3% compared with that of the counties that would be included in the program later. The program primarily boosted the secondary industry, with less pronounced effects on primary and tertiary sectors. Moreover, the program promoted economic growth more significantly in hilly areas with abundant hydropower resources and labor resources. In addition, using nighttime light data, we find that the electrification program illuminated dark areas without light. Finally, the effect of the electrification program on township and village enterprises was an important channel through which electrification promoted economic growth.

‘Just’ access to electricity: Energy justice in Indonesia’s rural electrification (LISDES) program

This study examined issues that emerge from Indonesia’s rural electrification (LISDES) program. A qualitative study was used as an approach. Document analysis and semi-structured interviews are the methods selected for data collection. Using energy justice as an analytical framework, three categories of energy injustices were identified in the program: distributive, procedural, and recognition injustice. Unequal income to pay electricity bills; uneven geographical conditions; and unequal distribution of the population were identified as the elements of distributive injustice. Inadequate access to informational disclosure on the problems and solutions of the program; lack of meaningful participation of subnational actors; and lack of a comprehensive law and regulatory framework in place to protect private sectors in the program were demonstrated as the elements of procedural injustice. Lastly, a lack of understanding of the various meanings of electricity as the key to public welfare; and non-recognition of distinctive socioeconomic characteristics in various locations of Indonesia were found as the key elements of recognition injustice. These findings suggest that to achieve 'just' access to electricity in the LISDES program, it is critical to address all elements of energy injustice identified in the program and clearly define long-term goals for the program.

Women, equality, and energy access: Emerging lessons for last-mile rural electrification in Brazil

The inaccessibility to clean and affordable energy, as well as large gender inequalities are two of the greatest challenges faced by rural areas of the Global South. However, the gender approach is still very lacking in energy access literature. This work aims to bridge this gap, by answering two questions: “How do gender inequalities limit women's access to energy benefits, and how can this be counteracted to ensure equal benefit from energy access for both genders?” and “To what extent do energy access initiatives reduce or increase the gender gap and how can these initiatives be improved to correct gender inequalities?”. To respond to these questions, field research has been carried out in 19 remote traditional communities in the semi-arid region of Bahia (Brazil), where a last-mile rural electrification program was launched a decade ago. The collection of mixed empirical evidence permitted a multi-criteria analysis of the impact of energy at the residential, community and productive levels. The results highlighted that, to benefit both genders equally, there is a need for higher energy capacities, capable of running household electrical appliances and electrifying community services where women play a fundamental role. In addition, the incorporation of energy affordability mechanisms for women and the continuous local provision of gender-sensitive services are transformative vectors in reversing gender inequalities through energy access initiatives.

Towards rural net-zero energy buildings through integration of photovoltaic systems within bio-based earth houses: Case study in Eastern Morocco

Off-grid rural electrification programs involving renewable energy provide effective ways to boost the availability of power in remote areas. Herein, the combination of local bio-based building materials with appropriate sizing of a photovoltaic (PV) system to achieve energy-efficient rural housing in developing countries is investigated. The study focused on the fabrication and laboratory testing of a building material incorporating plant fibers, followed by a feasibility analysis of an integrated stand-alone PV system. EnergyPlus software was used to assess the energy-saving potential of bio-based building envelopes, and Homer Pro software was used for techno-economic optimization. Using a case-study building, various configurations were evaluated in terms of levelized energy cost and net present cost. According to the experimental results, the inclusion of 8 wt% Alfa fibers in earth blocks led to a noteworthy enhancement in the thermal resistance and time lag of the building envelope. Specifically, the improvement ranged from 0.549 to 1.125 m2K/W and from 18.5–h to 23.2–h, respectively, compared to using earth alone. This improvement resulted in a substantial decrease in the building's annual energy consumption, with a reduction of 24.3% for heating and 26.7% for cooling. Furthermore, the techno-economic analysis revealed that the electricity provided by a PV-battery hybrid system was 100% renewable and emission-free, with an energy cost of approximately $0.218/kWh and a present net cost of $11,560.21 These findings indicated that combining available solar energy with locally produced bio-based construction materials could be a viable approach for achieving carbon neutrality and building energy-efficient ulta-low-cost rural housing.

Persistent Rise in Demand for Firewood in Bhutan? An Unbalanced Panel Data Analysis 2003-2017

Using the large sample household survey conducted in the years 2003, 2007, 2012, and 2017, this study examines the change in firewood consumption due to the adoption of electricity, liquid petroleum gas (LPG), and biogas. This study examines the use of firewood separately for cooking and heating purposes over the study period.Almost all the households in Bhutan are connected to electricity. The rural electrification programme in the last two decades has helped households shift to electricity for lighting and cooking purposes. While we look at the energy use dynamics in Bhutan, the households have shifted their energy use from firewood to more clean energy sources such as electricity, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and biogas for cooking purposes. However, the use of firewood for heating has been persistently increasing over the years. Our two-way fixed effect model suggests that firewood family size, the distance to the distribution point, and the number of cattle the households own also significantly influence firewood consumption.The results from the Focus Group Discussions (FDGs) indicated that the Bhutanese tradition of construction, food, and living in rural areas plays a significant role in maintaining the unwavering demand for firewood.

Rural electrification and women's empowerment in Côte d’Ivoire

PurposeThis paper assesses the impact of this program on the rural women's employment opportunities using data from the 2015 round of the household's living standard survey (HLSS) of Côte d'Ivoire.Design/methodology/approachIn 2013, in order to improve the living conditions of the rural population, the Ivorian government launched the National Program for rural electrification (PRONER) to electrify all localities with more than 500 inhabitants.FindingsThe results show that PRONER, while reducing the time allocated to performing household chores, increases women's employment through the reallocation of time to full-time paid work in the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors. The authors also find that the allocation of men's time is not affected by this programme. A possible mechanism that would explain such a pro-women effect is the labour-saving technology introduced to home production as an effect of the reform.Research limitations/implicationsAs a limitation, it is important to note that these results were obtained in the specific context of PRONER in Côte d’Ivoire and are not necessarily applicable to rural electrification programmes in other contexts. Furthermore, the choice of other indicators to measure women's empowerment is limited by the quality of the data available. It would be interesting for future research to extend this analysis to include other aspects of women's empowerment and household welfare.Originality/valueThis paper is the first to the author’s knowledge to apply a robust econometric method by combining an inverse probability weighted regression adjustment model with Heckman sample selection method to access a robust causal effect of the PRONER in Côte d'Ivoire.

Challenges and Strategies of Rural Electrification Program for Electric Cooperatives in Central Luzon, Philippines

The Philippine government strongly advocates the Rural Electrification Program for over 50 years, purposely to generate better opportunities that would propel socio-economic development. Various rural electrification initiatives were then established to attain universal electricity access but actual accomplishments continue to lag behind the targets. This study delved into the Rural Electrification Program of four (4) Electric Cooperatives in Central Luzon, Philippines, and assessed its impacts on poverty, health and well-being, quality of education, economic growth and development, industry and infrastructure, and climate change. A descriptive research design was applied and used qualitative and quantitative methods of research in collecting, investigating, and explaining the data. The quantitative method involving numerical data was gathered from the respondents through a survey questionnaire powered by Google forms while in the qualitative aspect, an interview with the respondents along with appropriate observation was conducted. Determination of different problems confronting the said program and the application of aggressive and more advanced strategies were conducted. Findings revealed that the biggest electrification challenge being experienced by Electric Cooperatives (ECs) was rural inaccessibility and remoteness of areas along with difficult or rugged terrain. Thus, the best-recommended solution for non-viable areas after trying all the possible options would be off-grid electrification. In conclusion, the implication of the findings of the study of Public Administration was deliberated to comprehensively assess the opportunities to attain an enhanced quality of life, better access to basic services in areas of health, education, and water as well as resilient infrastructure towards rural development, for the best interest of Filipino people. Keywords: Rural electrification program, Electric services, Universal electricity access, Central Luzon, Philippines

Viability of a rural electrification program in Peru

This research resumes the work carried out at the ACCIONA Micro Energy Foundation (FUNDAME) as part of the final internship and Master’s thesis for the 2014 European Joint Master’s in Management and Engineering of Environment and Energy Program (ME3). The internship took place in the Corporate Social Responsibility department of ACCIONA S.A. The internship consisted of improving the company´s business model to reach more isolated communities and effectuate preventive and corrective maintenance more sustainably. The step-by-step process used to implement this methodology in an economically sustainable manner using a fee-for-service model has been documented. In addition, the business model was evaluated to demonstrate its viability, impact, sustainability, and scalability during the systems' lifetime; improvements were also analyzed. Due to the distance between ACCIONA Micro energy Peru (AMP) and the users, the costs of installation and maintenance of these systems can be significant. The new methodology, which states the implementation of Energy Supply and Service Centers (ESSC), has the potential to decrease project and operational costs and sustain itself over time

Rural Electrification and the Uptake of Renewable Energy in Nigeria: Lessons from Kenya

Recent technology advancements have brought to the fore the role renewable energy can play in providing timely access to clean and affordable energy in the rural areas. Although rural electrification programme in Nigeria aims at harnessing renewable energy resources for improved electricity access, the contribution of renewable energy has remained marginal till date. The aim of this paper is to identify barriers to the uptake of renewable energy for improved access to electricity in the rural areas. The paper finds that inadequate funding of rural electrification programme, high initial costs of renewable energy technology, absence of community participation coupled with the absence of a body with specific mandate to promote the use of renewable energy for rural electrification are major barriers to the rural application of renewable energy. Failure of Nigeria to address the issues will have implications for electricity access in the rural areas.

Energy justice for whom? Territorial (re)production and everyday state-making in electrifying rural Indonesia

This article seeks to examine the material implications of the emergence of an energy justice (energi berkeadilan) vision in Indonesia, paying particular attention to the state’s spatial practice to achieve such a vision in the form of rural electrification programs including the deployment of off-grid decentralised renewables. Informed by semi-structured interviews, participant observation and secondary data analysis, we contribute to the growing conversations on geographical political economy of energy transitions by closely attending to the multiple space-making processes characterising the Indonesian government’s pursuit of their energy justice vision. Inspired by Henri Lefebvre’s ideas on state space and territory, we begin by unravelling the historical connection between the rise of energy justice vision and the Indonesian state attempts to maintain and expand its territorial reach through rural electrification, as evidenced throughout the country’s contemporary political economies and its earlier history of postcolonial struggles. We simultaneously unpack various legal mechanisms and instruments underpinning the government’s efforts to deliver energy justice promises by way of universal electricity access, demonstrating the centrality of such strategies in the (re)production of state territories. Through inquiring how energy justice is mobilised by (and for) the Indonesian state, our study illustrates that such everyday state-making processes entail a calculative technique as another form of territorial intervention that obscures the reality of socio-spatially uneven and fragmented electricity access in rural Indonesia. Such findings, we suggest, reveal the contradictions in the state’s repositioning as a main enabler of energy access provision and, more broadly, a socially just energy transition.

Rural Electrification and Sustainable Planning of Sukuk Financing within the Isolated Communities in Nigeria: Using Investment and Blockchain Technology

The Renewable Energy system enhances rural communities' development in the country, specifically in North-East and North-West, Nigeria. The ability to overcome extreme poverty and improve their living conditions is related to the renewable energy technology available. The rural electrification planning approach consists of socioeconomic, environmental, and institutional sustainability dimensions. This study establishes specific objectives to achieve sustainability in rural electrification programs. Conceptual frameworks are proposed for achieving universal access anywhere with similar experiences. The methodology is proposed to 3000 isolated communities in North-East and North-West, Nigeria that lack electricity. Three different strategic approaches are formulated as a research-based investment analysis framework. Confirmatory Factor Analysis under Structural Equation Modelling is shown in Figure 2. While figure 3 addressed the technology aspect through blockchain technology. The findings of this work are intended to contribute to the improvement of rural electrification programs with Renewable Energy (RE) of the solar system.

Operationalizing affordability criterion in energy justice: Evidence from rural West Africa

Affordability of energy is at the heart of the concept of energy poverty but also an important criterion for energy justice globally. Yet, in developing countries where households predominantly rely on traditional energy sources, measuring the cost of energy goes beyond the price of the fuel and includes other non-monetary costs, such as the time spent and the distance travelled for fuel collection. This paper thereby proposes a redefinition as well as an operationalization of the affordability criterion within the energy justice framework. The outcomes are applied to data obtained in rural Benin, Senegal and Togo. The results suggest that, on average, the opportunity costs related to energy collection represent between 29 and 35% of household income in rural areas. Additionally, failing to account for the non-monetary costs of energy consumption in rural locations may lead to categorizing at least 17% of households as having access to affordable energy, when in fact these households spend substantial amount of time in fuel collection. The study also suggests that reducing income poverty and promoting better access to modern energy sources, through rural electrification programs, are critical to ensure energy affordability in rural West Africa.

The limits of the concession-led model in rural electrification policy: The case study of Senegal

The problem of providing electricity to rural sectors in developing countries has been approached by using a variety of strategies, with varying degrees of success. Governments with determination and resources have implemented a utility-led model to pursue or achieve rural electrification. In countries with fewer resources, Governments have opted for the concession-led model, in which rural areas are divided into zones or concession areas and offered to private companies for the provision of electricity. In developing countries, the concession-led model for the electrification of rural areas faces the serious hurdles of the abject poverty of farmers in many rural communities and the large number of small sized villages or highly dispersed settlements. This is the case of Senegal, which adopted the concession-led model, resulting in a rural electrification rate still under 40%. The current study first provides a detailed analysis of the challenges and achievements of the rural electrification program in Senegal. Secondly, we present our model for the creation of universal access to electricity, using the example of a pilot project in Coure Matar, a small village in Senegal. Our model is suitable for small villages, demonstrating the potential generation of job opportunities for small sized companies and the opportunity to achieve 100% rural electrification at a fraction (less than 16%) of the cost of the Senegalese Government's initial estimates to provide just 50% of rural electrification. In this study, the pilot project puts forth a model that could make the realization of universal access to basic electric services in rural areas, even in the poorest countries of the world, a reality.

Nigerian Power Sector: A new structure required for effective and adequate power generation, transmission and distribution

In this paper, the structure of the Nigerian power sector is examined, the problems in the structure are identified and a new structure is proposed for effective power generation, transmission and distribution. Besides the problems usually canvassed, the current structure is defective from the perspective of the ownership of the power infrastructures, passive involvement of state governments and undue influence of the federal government. The reforms in the sector were driven by the Electric Power Sector Reform Act (EPSRA) of 2005, leading to the creation of Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN) to take both the assets and the liabilities of the then National Electric Power Authority (NEPA), and the subsequent unbundling of PHCN to 18 successor companies – 6 power generating companies, one power transmission company and 11 power distribution companies. The new structure proposed in this work gives room for every state government to own power plants and distribute power in the various states. They can equally buy power from independent power producers. Power plants owned by the federal government in the present structure are to continue sending power to the national grid and made available to states with insufficient power generation in the new structure. Independent power producers can also send power to the national grid. The federal government will continue managing power transmission in the new structure. Each state government will own at least two power distribution companies in partnership with private organizations who will equally have a stake in the ownership of the power generating plants. The tariff of grid-connected power will be higher, encouraging states to go into active power generation. The new structure will enable the federal government to do away with rural electrification programme and other power generation options regulated by the Nigerian Electricity Regulatory Commission which should be under the control of various state governments. New laws are needed in the place of the EPSRA to achieve the new structure. The federal government will make money from the proposed structure instead of spending huge sums of money in the present structure.

Assessing the opportunities and challenges facing the development of off-grid solar systems in Eastern Africa: The cases of Kenya, Ethiopia, and Rwanda

With the world's lowest electrification rate, Africa is repositioning to offer its citizens a brighter future. Global renewable energy agencies and international financing to expedite rural electrification fueled by off-grid solar systems are attracting worldwide attention. Currently, 770 million people lack access to electricity on the continent, and more than 60% live in poor rural areas where the national power grid is non-existent. The challenge herein is how to supply electricity to rural population, living on $1.5 a day, at a reasonable power tariff. Although there are opportunities for off-grid solar energy to keep growing in sub-Saharan countries, it is impossible to ignore particular challenges in these countries. This paper focuses on three sub-Saharan counties: Kenya, Ethiopia, and Rwanda. Rwanda, Kenya, and Ethiopia foster off-grid solar systems as the primary solution through rural electrification programs. This paper provides a comparative analysis of the electrification experiences of these countries in terms of sources of funding, the challenges and opportunities they have been experiencing as well as an analysis of policy implications. The results show that off-grid solar systems improve health, ICT, and micro-enterprises in rural areas. However, governments should generate more robust developmental schemes that provide income to rural people that pushes them above the poverty line and enables them to afford off-grid solar products.

Let the Water Flow: The Impact of Electrification on Agriculture

Over one billion people worldwide live in rural areas without access to electricity. In developing countries, while governments use electrification programs to stimulate non-agricultural employment, they may also have benefits for the agricultural sector. We estimate the impacts of India's large-scale rural electrification program on agricultural output using a difference-in-difference design and a combination of administrative and satellite data. We find that electrification leads to a 1.7% increase in agricultural output which is largely driven by the rain-fed summer cropping season. Agriculture in electrified villages becomes less sensitive to rainfall shocks, which is of growing importance given worsening environmental conditions. We provide suggestive evidence that this decline in sensitivity is due to an increase in the uptake of electric shallow tube wells, particularly at the intensive margin.

Potential of meeting electricity needs of off-grid community with mini-grid solar systems

The abundance of renewable energy in Ghana can play an important role in the rural electrification program rolled out by the Government of Ghana to promote energy that everyone can assess for improved living standards. It has the potential to meet the objectives of the energy sector which include; 10% renewable energy in the total generation mix, minimize the adverse effects of energy production on the environment, reduce poverty, and improve the socio-economic development of the country, mainly, in rural communities, creating community-based employment, etc. In this study, Nkrankrom was selected as a case study to evaluate the possibility of meeting their energy needs with a solar mini-grid. To determine the energy demand of the community, a structured questionnaire was used to collect data. The HOMER software was used to perform the financial viability of utilizing the solar resource available. The result shows that it is possible to meet the energy demand of the community from the solar resource available. The proposed system configuration included PV/Battery/Converter with a Levelized Cost of Energy of $0.107/kWh compared to $0.124/kWh (using $1 = GH₵4.98 rate), if the area is to be connected to the national grid. The breakeven distance or Electric Distance Limit (EDL) between standalone mini-grid and grid extension in this analysis was found to be 1.11 km. The study also revealed that solar mini-grid could have an immense benefit to the community both economically and socially such as improve the standard of living as well as meeting the rural development objectives of Ghana.

When complexity turns into local prosperity: A system dynamics approach to meeting the challenges of the rural electricity-development nexus

The rural electrification-based literature reports a limited modelling knowledge concerning the long-term dynamics of the nexus between electricity access and local development in rural areas of developing countries. This can hinder the achievement of the Agenda 2030 goals related to sustainable access to electricity for all. In order to overcome this literature gap and support the implementation of sustainable long-term rural electrification programmes, this paper builds upon the research on a system dynamics model on the local dimension of the electricity-development nexus developed by the authors by testing it and deriving useful guidelines for supporting future electrification actions in sub-Saharan Africa. All the steps are based on a real case-study as reference, i.e. a hydroelectric-based electrification programme implemented in the rural community of Ikondo, Tanzania, in 2005 by the Italian NGO named CEFA Onlus. The results of the model testing lead to a novel quantitative assessment of the most relevant dynamics affecting the local electricity-development nexus, and it provides a novel discussion on model results when its inputs take on different values, until the extreme ones, and as if the model were tested for different contexts than Ikondo. Policy testing is also performed for exploring model behaviour when subjected to different polices and exogenous decision-making processes. It provides a list of complementary activities to couple with electrification programmes for enhancing their positive impact on rural communities. These results can support the definition of useful guidelines and best practices for rural electrification in sub-Saharan Africa, and they advocate an updating of the traditional monitoring and evaluation frameworks commonly used for assessing energy access projects.

The process of rural electrification in developing countries: systemic analysis based on the understanding of policies of Brazil and China

The present article, based on a systemic approach, analyzed rural electrification policies and programs in China and Brazil, two countries that have already reached 99% of the population receiving electricity in rural areas. This analysis was focused on four macro-factors (governance, funding, implementation and monitoring and technological available), which together collaborated in a positive or negative way for the evolutionary process of rural electrification policy. The study allowed to conclude that a clear priority was given to macro-factors funding (mainly public) and available technologies, which made possible the advances in rural electrification but undermined the reliability of the system and its relationship with local income generation processes. In the case of China local participation (utilities, energy and population) was observed, but with negative points for governance and monitoring. In the Brazilian case, the bottleneck remains the Amazon region, which requires structures based on the macro factors that are dimensioned for the region. Finally, a decision-making framework was set up based on scenarios for rural electrification in developing countries, showing that it is possible to maintain the rural electrification process from the strong funding structures and available technologies, but the deadline for universalization will have no set term if there are no solid structures of governance and management at the local level.