This paper examines how education policies have shaped rural student performance in four developing countries—China, India, Uganda, and Peru—through a comparative literature review. Despite significant policy efforts, disparities in rural learning outcomes persist. The study identifies a research gap in understanding how policy design and local implementation interact to influence rural education quality. Using a narrative comparative approach, it synthesizes findings from peer-reviewed studies and policy evaluations published over the past two decades. The analysis highlights three cross-cutting challenges: ensuring teacher quality, sustaining rural teacher retention, and strengthening local implementation systems. A comparative perspective reveals that community participation, when combined with accountability and resources, can positively influence outcomes. Taken together, the cases suggest that effective reform requires long-term commitment, adaptability, and attention to rural realities. The review contributes to both scholarship and practice by offering policy lessons relevant to developing contexts such as Papua New Guinea, where similar institutional and geographic constraints persist.

While current quantitative studies on China and East Asian societies suggest a “flattening” trend in educational attitudes across different social classes, this article, based on in-depth interviews and field observations in two distinct educational settings—elite universities and county-level high schools—reveals profound differences in the relational logic between different social classes and the school education system. The study finds that urban middle-class families often adopt the posture of a “consumer-style/entrepreneurial learner,” selectively mobilizing educational resources and employing highly rational, autonomous strategies to serve their own goals. In contrast, for non-advantaged classes, school education is more like an “other” system—external, scarce, and a foreign territory one is only qualified to enter after rounds of competition. Due to a lack of choice and weak mobility, they are firmly attached to the educational system, their posture more akin to that of a pious apprentice before a powerful master, where autonomy and individuality are suppressed and surrendered. Understanding this difference in subjectivity not only deepens the discussion on educational equity but also helps to understand the deep socio-psychological mechanisms behind why some public education policies (such as the “Double Reduction” and the “New Gaokao”) deviate from their intended goals during implementation. The study calls for moving beyond the preconception of students as a uniform whole and incorporating the “heterogeneous educational subjectivities” of different social groups into the considerations of academic research, policy-making, and evaluation.

Development of inclusive finance, digital infrastructure, and the urban–rural education gap

Impact of digitalized-education upon sustainable education and practice: A systematic review and meta-analysis of literature based on pre-intra-and-post pandemic and rural education development

Rapid economic development and accelerated urbanization have prompted large numbers of rural adults to migrate to cities for better job opportunities, leaving a large population of rural school-age children behind in their hometowns. The absence of parental affection and the breakdown of family functions have created significant challenges for the behavioral health of left-behind children, placing a crucial responsibility on rural education. This study employed semi-structured interviews and questionnaires to identify the demands of rural education among left-behind children. Applying the Kano model to analyze these demands revealed that, among 25 demand indicators, 6 were classified as must-be quality, 8 as one-dimensional quality, 6 as attractive quality, and 5 as indifferent quality. Subsequently, the AHP was used to identify the weight of each demand indicator. The study results identified and ranked the key demands in rural education that support the behavioral health of left-behind children, providing a basis for rural schools and teachers to formulate targeted strategies, and offering an operational pathway for promoting the behavioral health of left-behind children from the perspective of demand, thereby advancing the sustainable development of both the behavioral health of left-behind children and the rural education system.

This qualitative study, using a hermeneutic approach and discourse analysis, examines the relationship between the narratives of the educational community and the institutional horizon at the Rural Educational Institution Carbonera (Andes, Antioquia). Through semi-structured interviews and conceptual matrices, it identifies convergences, dissonances, and discursive gaps between the voices of students, families, and teachers and the official institutional document. Findings reveal a gap between institutional norms and local experiences. The study proposes a reformulation of the institutional horizon based on a polyphonic narrative identity that acknowledges context and promotes a democratic, participatory, and situated school, particularly in rural settings.

Rural education is frequently addressed through the lens of material disadvantage highlighting issues such as inadequate infrastructure, limited teacher availability, and restricted access. While these concerns are valid, they often obscure the deeper structural injustices that shape educational experiences in rural contexts. This paper examines the theoretical foundations connecting rural education and social justice, arguing that equity must be understood not only in terms of redistribution, but also in relation to recognition and representation. Drawing on the work of Fraser, Sen, and Young, the paper applies a multidimensional justice framework comprising distributive, recognitional, and representational justice to analyze how rural learners are marginalized in policy, curriculum, and governance. Through engagement with critical education theory, rural sociology, and place-based pedagogies, the paper highlights the need for context-sensitive, culturally sustaining, and participatory approaches to rural education. Reframing rural schooling as a site of agency, knowledge, and possibility, the paper calls for a justice-oriented reimagining of education systems that center the voices and values of rural communities.

This special issue explores the complex intersections of mobility and rurality across diverse global contexts. The contributing articles by up-and-coming rural scholars reveal how mobility encompasses multifaceted social, emotional, and cognitive transitions which shape rural individuals’ lived experiences and imagined futures. Collectively, this issue calls for more nuanced understandings of mobility in rural education research and policy by recognising it as intertwined with place-based assets, personal needs, and contextualised meanings. This special issue aims to foster innovative strategies promoting educational equity and sustainable development that honour the diverse contexts shaping rural lives and mobilities. Through the platforming of emerging scholars’ voices across methodologies and geographies, new strategies promoting sustainable rural education are envisioned.

The urban–rural education divide continues to be a pervasive feature of educational inequality globally, reflected in disparities in access, infrastructure, teacher quality, and learning outcomes. While policy responses often emphasize resource redistribution and infrastructural development, they frequently overlook the cultural, linguistic, and contextual dimensions that shape educational engagement. This paper re-examines the urban–rural divide through the lens of sociocultural theory, foregrounding the view that learning is socially situated, culturally mediated, and deeply influenced by place-based experience. Drawing on Vygotsky’s foundational concepts and subsequent contributions to sociocultural thought, the paper critiques dominant, urban-centric educational models and argues for a more nuanced understanding of rural learners’ identities, knowledge systems, and community practices. Through a critical review of literature and theoretical application, the paper advocates for a reconceptualization of educational equity that centers context, cultural relevance, and local agency in both pedagogy and policy.

There is a lack of digital skills in rural primary schools in South Africa. While technology integration is widely promoted, there is a notable research gap concerning the training of in-service English First Additional Language (EFAL) teachers in rural settings. This study explored the perceptions of Intermediate Phase EFAL teachers regarding in-service training on digital skills in the rural primary schools of the Mogodumo Circuit, Limpopo. The study was grounded in an interpretivist paradigm and informed by a professional learning conceptual framework. It employed a qualitative descriptive case study approach, using semi-structured interviews to generate data. Purposive sampling was used to select ten EFAL teachers from six primary schools, comprising six males and four females. The thematic method was employed for data analysis. The study found that digital in-service training was transformative for rural EFAL teachers, enhancing their confidence and digital teaching skills despite infrastructural challenges. Teachers highlighted the value of combining traditional and digital methods, collaborative learning, and using digital tools to support inclusive education, particularly for visually impaired learners. It is concluded that teachers’ perceptions provide valuable insights into the realities of rural education and can guide more effective, context-specific professional development. The study recommends further research into context-responsive digital training models and the pedagogical impact of inclusive technologies, while also calling for continuous, practical in-service training and collaborative, inclusive teaching strategies. This study contributes to the existing body of knowledge by providing a model for designing effective professional development in under-resourced rural contexts.

Rosie Alexander’s book provides rural education researchers with a valuable resource, with helpful theoretical perspectives and evidence to inform arguments about the nature of rural access to higher education and career transitions beyond. While the study is clearly bounded in an island context of Scotland, the generalisability of the findings to other contexts are fairly clear to me. As I read through the book, I found myself reflecting on my own experiences living and working in island and rural communities. Much of the content resonates with me, even though I am unfamiliar with the research context. This is an academic book and I think is best suited to an academic audience. While the anecdotes presented provide insights into the experiences of young people, the theory surrounding these insights would be somewhat difficult for an education professional or policy maker to digest. I found the structure a little repetitive at times, where concepts were reused from chapter to chapter. That said, there is considerable value in this book as it challenges assumptions and presents alternative ways of thinking about higher education access and career pathways.

Rural education systems face persistent and multifaceted challenges stemming from geographic isolation, resource constraints, and sociocultural marginalization. Education policy plays a critical role in either mitigating or compounding these inequities. This paper presents a comparative literature review of how education policies have influenced rural schooling across a range of national contexts, including both developed and developing countries. The analysis focuses on key policy dimensions such as access, quality, teacher deployment, and curriculum relevance. Through a cross-contextual examination, the paper identifies common patterns and divergences in policy design and implementation, highlighting both structural limitations and adaptive strategies. The findings underscore the need for more context-sensitive, equity-oriented policy approaches that account for the specific realities of rural learners and communities. The paper concludes with recommendations for policy reform and areas for further research, aiming to inform more inclusive and sustainable rural education systems.

This study examines how curriculum innovation supports inclusive education and boosts the digital competencies of pre-service teachers in rural universities within the context of TPACK, integrating technological knowledge with pedagogy and content. In response to the constraints brought about by rapid digital transformation, a systematic literature review was undertaken, identifying peer-reviewed writings published between 2000 and 2025. The reviewed works considered the crossroads of Digital Technologies, Curriculum Design and Reality of Rural Teacher Education. The results suggest that while digital technologies, such as e-learning, virtual labs, and mobile technologies hold the hope for promising integration, the implementation has so far limited infrastructure, digital illiteracy, and a lack of alignment between curricular intents and classroom practice. Online and hybrid modalities, active learning, and professional development frequently emerged from the analysis as key factors that support digital integration. Based on the TPACK framework, the research emphasizes that curriculum reforms should integrate the use of digital tools into pedagogical practice, not view their use as an occasional extra. It also suggests technology-based teacher preparation programmes that are context-relevant and ideally geared to the specific needs of rural education settings. The study contributes to the debate on the digital transformation of teacher education by providing evidence-based input into curriculum design. It further offers policymakers and educators a platform towards the creation of responsive training models that serve to bridge the digital divide and nurture teaching that is inclusive and ready for the future. Keywords: Pre-Service Teacher Education, Digital Curriculum Innovation, TPACK Framework, Inclusive Education, Rural Contexts

This study examines the effect of structured teaching routines on children's motivation to learn English in rural educational settings. Conducted in a public primary school in Ecuador with 35 students aged 7 to 8 years, the research employed a qualitative action-research approach that combined interviews and classroom observations. Results show that implementing predictable and attractive teaching routines, such as songs, games, and motor activities, significantly enhances students' motivation and participation. Students showed a greater willingness to use English spontaneously and less anxiety about learning the language. The study identified three key elements for successful routines: predictability to create a safe learning environment, the incorporation of cultural content to increase engagement, and the provision of constant positive reinforcement by teachers. These structured approaches have helped to overcome common problems in rural education, such as limited resources and a lack of familiarity with the English language. The limited availability of technological resources, frequent absences, and the restricted number of hours dedicated to English instruction hinder its widespread use. Recommendations include comparing groups from rural and urban areas to assess whether teaching methods have a similar impact, as well as using samples from different age groups. This research enhances our understanding of how structured teaching methods can improve language learning in resource-limited settings by promoting psychological safety and cultural relevance.

In the context of the ongoing implementation of the Digital Village strategy, digital marketingincluding short video promotions and live commercehas exerted a notable influence on rural areas. However, this development does not necessarily correspond to a broad enhancement in educational quality. Instead, it has given rise to a dichotomy characterised as marketing prosperity versus educational stagnation, observable across multiple dimensions. To elucidate this paradox, this study develops a township-level indicator of digital marketing intensity. Using a fixed-effects panel regression model and incorporating mediating variablessuch as the degree of social attention and educational coveragealong with heterogeneity and robustness tests, this research draws on panel data from 372 counties spanning the period 2011 to 2022. It systematically investigates the impact of digital marketing on the urbanrural education gap and its underlying mechanisms. By empirically evaluating the effects of digital marketing on rural education in a comprehensive manner, this study offers a new paradigm for addressing the phenomenon of digital suspension, fostering the deeper integration of digital marketing and rural education, and advancing the soft infrastructure essential for rural revitalisation.

Purpose: The study focuses on the ways in which education equity can be employed to stimulate sustainable development between national economies that have interest to China and Thailand. It talks of how equal access to education contributes to human capital and productivity and inclusive economic growth and provides empirical evidence of the same in the light of a cross country comparative framework. Methodology/Approach: The panel data used in the quantitative econometric analysis were 2000-2023, which was gathered in the World Bank, UNESCO, and national statistical bureaus. The identification of the causal relationship between education equity and the outcomes of sustainable development was completed with the help of the fixed-effects regression models as well as the indicators, such as the Education Gini Index, Sustainable development goal (SDG) achievement scores, and GDP per capita growth. Originality/Relevance: The research is based on the discussion of sustainable development and it introduces the equity of education in the macroeconomic analysis as the gap that exists between social justice and the economic sustainability. It pays attention to the contribution of structural educational reform and inclusion in alleviating regional disparities as well as accelerating economic sustainability on a long-term basis in developing economies. Key Findings: The results show that China and Thailand are positively correlated in terms of the education equity and sustainability indices. The rapid rural education has brought about quantifiable benefits in the human capital and environmental consciousness in China and the gender parity programs in Thailand. The marginal effect however is higher in China because it has a wider scope of investment and regional policies of innovation. The results indicate that the key to the attainment of a balanced, sustainable economic development lies in the inclusion of educational structures. Theoretical/Methodological Contributions: The research has added to the literature by incorporating economic modeling and sustainable development theory to provide a model that can be replicated in other countries to analyze educational inclusiveness. It contributes to the empirical knowledge of the functioning of equity in education as a long-term source of sustainability in education, leading the policymakers to

Goal 4 of the National Education Plan (PNE) 2014-2024 aimed to universalize access to basic education for students targeted by Special and Inclusive Education (EEI), ensuring an inclusive system with Specialized Educational Service (SES) infrastructure. This article investigates the paradox between the success of this policy in access with increased enrollment and its failure to guarantee infrastructure, focusing on the context of “double vulnerability” of Rural Education. This study is justified by the need to expose how the absence of material conditions prevents the transition from “integration” to “inclusion”, in the terms of Mantoan (2003). The general objective was to diagnose the adequacy of SEA infrastructure and accessibility in rural schools in the state of Bahia. The problem-question is: was the quantitative advance in the enrollment of ISS students in rural schools in Bahia accompanied by qualitative investment in infrastructure, as required by Goal 4? The methodology consisted of a quantitative and qualitative documentary analysis, based on microdata from the 2024 School Census. The results are alarming: in the rural universe of Bahia, only 36% of schools have accessibility and only 21% have Multifunctional Resource Rooms (SRMs). It is concluded that, in this context, Goal 4 was not fully fulfilled, characterizing a precarious integration policy that denies pedagogical support and physical accessibility to the majority of students, directly impacting the teaching praxis.

Abstract Rural schools in China have long been in a state of underdevelopment. Studies have mainly addressed this issue from the perspective of rural–urban structural inequality, while neglecting the cultural processes that lead to inequality reproduction. Through the lens of cultural production, this study analyses qualitative data gathered in Gongshui county in central China, revealing how rural teachers and parents construct a negative perception of rural schools, evoked by devalued meanings associated with schools’ physical appearance, teaching staff characteristics and academic performance. Influenced by the discourse on rural inferiority, teachers and parents have cultivated a collective identity of becoming “less” rural and adopt strategies to disassociate themselves from rural education and community. Their cultural production of “bad” rural schools perpetuates and reinforces the underdevelopment of rural schools. This study draws attention to the cultural misconceptions surrounding rurality and the cultural processes by which educational inequalities are produced and reproduced in rural areas, both in China and globally.

The objective of this study is to present a case study on the use of digital technologies...etc...until...learning process. The research adopts a qualitative and quantitative approach, based on questionnaires administered to teachers at the Aristides State School, seeking to understand how technological integration occurs in rural contexts marked by structural limitations and challenges in teacher training. The results indicate that, although all teachers recognize the pedagogical potential of digital technologies and use them with some frequency, especially tools such as YouTube, PowerPoint, and Google Meet, their use is still limited to expository and traditional functions. The lack of ongoing training and technical-pedagogical support constitutes a significant obstacle, limiting the innovative use of DICT and hindering the development of teacher autonomy. Furthermore, divergent perceptions are observed regarding the alignment between the use of technologies and the guidelines of the National Common Curricular Base (BNCC). The conclusion is that the effective integration of digital technologies into rural education requires consistent public policies focused on teacher training, strengthening technological infrastructure, and promoting digital inclusion. Despite the challenges, the study highlights teachers' commitment and creativity in adapting technologies to the local context, revealing possibilities for pedagogical and social transformation.

The integration of deep learning in education has the potential to enhance pedagogical practices, personalized learning, and adaptive instruction. However, Islamic schools face unique challenges in adopting AI-driven educational models due to technological limitations, digital literacy disparities, and regulatory constraints. This study assesses the readiness of Islamic school teachers in Indonesia to implement deep learning-based curricula, analyzing knowledge, attitudes, barriers, and demographic influences on AI adoption. A structured questionnaire was administered to 1,120 teachers across madrasahs, pesantrens, and Islamic private schools, with data analyzed using the Rasch measurement model to ensure psychometric validity. Differential Item Functioning (DIF) analysis was conducted to examine variations in readiness across gender, age, education level, teaching experience, and ICT knowledge. The results reveal moderate teacher readiness, with significant gaps in deep learning comprehension and practical implementation. Female teachers, mid-career educators (36–45 years), and secondary school teachers exhibit higher AI readiness, while novice and older teachers face greater barriers. ICT literacy emerges as the strongest predictor of readiness, underscoring the need for targeted digital training programs. Findings highlight infrastructure deficits, professional development gaps, and policy misalignment as primary obstacles to deep learning adoption. While urban teachers demonstrate higher AI engagement, rural educators require greater institutional support. The study emphasizes the necessity of differentiated professional development programs that cater to teachers at different career stages and digital literacy levels. These insights provide critical implications for policymakers, educational leaders, and curriculum developers in designing AI-driven pedagogical strategies for Islamic schools. Future research should explore mentorship initiatives and hybrid training models to foster sustainable AI adoption in religious education settings.