Running Shoes Research Articles

Human behaviors elevating the risk of exposure to Ixodes ricinus larvae and nymphs in two types of lowland coniferous forests in west-central Poland

Ixodes ricinus L. is the commonest tick encountered by humans in Central Europe and the most important vector of tick-borne diseases (TBD) in Europe. Foresters represent a group at elevated risk of exposure to I. ricinus throughout Europe. Here, we employed an experimental design similar to one used previously to determine what behavioral factors heighten exposure to questing Ixodes pacificus nymphs in a hardwood forest in the far-western United States. Five activities were evaluated systematically in a coniferous forest and a mixed broadleaved forest in west-central Poland: (i) walking in low-cut running shoes; (ii) sitting atop logs; (iii) sitting on leaf litter; (iv) sitting against tree trunks; and (v) gathering firewood. In total, 540 I. ricinus ticks were collected (198 larvae, 327 nymphs, 15 adults) in spring and late summer. Many more ticks were collected in spring than in late summer, and in the mixed broadleaved forest versus the coniferous forest. The riskiest behavior for acquiring nymphs in both spring and late summer was gathering firewood, though sitting atop logs was nearly as perilous in late summer. In contrast, the riskiest behaviors for encountering larvae in spring and late summer were sitting against trunks and sitting on leaf litter, respectively. Pairwise comparisons revealed only two significant associations among the variables explored for the nymphs: season and human gender, and season and type of forest. For larval ticks, the most significant associations were gender and sitting behaviors and for type of forest and sitting on leaf litter or against tree trunks. The most commonly infested body region was the lower legs.

Initiating running barefoot: Effects on muscle activation and impact accelerations in habitually rearfoot shod runners

Runners tend to shift from a rearfoot to a forefoot strike pattern when running barefoot. However, it is unclear how the first attempts at running barefoot affect habitually rearfoot shod runners. Due to the inconsistency of their recently adopted barefoot technique, a number of new barefoot-related running injuries are emerging among novice barefoot runners. The aim of this study was therefore to analyse the influence of three running conditions (natural barefoot [BF], barefoot with a forced rearfoot strike [BRS], and shod [SH]) on muscle activity and impact accelerations in habitually rearfoot shod runners. Twenty-two participants ran at 60% of their maximal aerobic speed while foot strike, tibial and head impact accelerations, and tibialis anterior (TA), peroneus longus (PL), gastrocnemius medialis (GM) and gastrocnemius lateralis (GL) muscle activity were registered. Only 68% of the runners adopted a non-rearfoot strike pattern during BF. Running BF led to a reduction of TA activity as well as to an increase of GL and GM activity compared to BRS and SH. Furthermore, BRS increased tibial peak acceleration, tibial magnitude and tibial acceleration rate compared to SH and BF. In conclusion, 32% of our runners showed a rearfoot strike pattern at the first attempts at running barefoot, which corresponds to a running style (BRS) that led to increased muscle activation and impact accelerations and thereby to a potentially higher risk of injury compared to running shod.

Factors Influencing Running-Related Musculoskeletal Injury Risk Among U.S. Military Recruits.

Running-related musculoskeletal injuries among U.S. military recruits negatively impact military readiness. Low aerobic fitness, prior injury, and weekly running distance are known risk factors. Physical fitness screening and remedial physical training (or discharging the most poorly fit recruits) before entry-level military training have tended to reduce injury rates while decreasing attrition, training, and medical costs. Incorporating anaerobic running sessions into training programs can offset decreased weekly running distance and decrease injury risk. Varying lower extremity loading patterns, stride length or cadence manipulation, and hip stability/strengthening programming may further decrease injury risk. No footstrike pattern is ideal for all runners; transitioning to forefoot striking may reduce risk for hip, knee, or tibial injuries, but increase risk for calf, Achilles, foot or ankle injuries. Minimal evidence associates running surfaces with injury risk. Footwear interventions should focus on proper fit and comfort; the evidence does not support running shoe prescription per foot type to reduce injury risk among recruits. Primary injury mitigation efforts should focus on physical fitness screening, remedial physical training (or discharge for unfit recruits), and continued inclusion of anaerobic running sessions to offset decreased weekly running distance.

Effect of transverse plane alterations in footwear design on lower limb biomechanics during running

Background Abduction of the forefoot, relative to the rearfoot, is a component of rearfoot pronation. It is therefore feasible that an ill-fitting shoe, which creates a relative abduction of the forefoot, could influence rearfoot motion with a corresponding effect on transverse plane tibial rotation. Aim To investigate whether transverse plane motion of the tibia is altered with specially designed footwear in which the front of the shoe is positioned either laterally or medially. Methods Kinematic data was collected from n=9 participants during running at 3.9 m/s in three footwear conditions: baseline, lateral forefoot and medial forefoot. ANOVA testing was then used to understand whether the different shoe designs affected tibial and/or pelvic motions. Results There was marked inter-subject variability in response to the two designs. Whereas some participants responded to the lateral design with a decrease in tibial rotation, others responded with a clear increase in external transverse tibial rotation. However, the mean effect was small and there were no significant difference in either the transverse tibial angle at initial contact or the transverse tibial range of movement. Interesting, the footwear designs appeared to have an effect on frontal plane pelvic motion. However, in some subjects pelvic motions were increased, whereas in others they were decreased, again leading to a non-significant mean effect. Conclusion These results may support the idea that an ill-fitting running shoe could lead to alterations in lower limb kinematics; however further work is required to understand individual differences in response.

Running Shoe With Extra Midsole Thickness Increase Foot Horizontal Instability During Treadmill Running

Running Shoe With Extra Midsole Thickness Increase Foot Horizontal Instability During Treadmill Running

Intersegmental Running Mechanics After Prolonged Activity in Recreational Runners.

Scant research exists documenting the effect of prolonged activity (PA) on coordination and variability of joint motion although these factors have been implicated to cause lower extremity injury. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of PA on intersegmental joint coordination and its variability in recreational runners. METHODS: A convenience sample of 20 asymptomatic recreational runners (28.9 ± 11.1 years; 15 females, 5 males) were recruited. After a 3 minute warm-up period, the displacements of markers placed over specific lower extremity bony landmarks were recorded every minute for 15 seconds along with a rating of perceived exertion (RPE) while the subjects ran at a pace that was 5% greater than their typical training speed. The subjects ran until they reported an RPE of 17. The angular displacements of the hip and knee joints of the first and last running trial were obtained and the stride phases of each trial extracted, time normalized and ensemble averaged to produce a representative running trial. The coupling angle between the hip and knee in the frontal and sagittal planes were determined for each trial. The trials were subdivided into 4 subphases early (ESt) and late (LSt) stance and early (ESw) and late (LSw) swing. A mean coupling angle (MCA) and angular deviation (AD) for each subphase were determined and the difference between the baseline and PA MCA for each subphase was assessed using angular statistics. The level of statistical significance for this study was set at the p = .05 level. RESULTS: A statistically significant difference (p > .05) in the sagittal plane MCA between the baseline (117°, 200°, 86°, 235° for Est, LSt, ESw, and LSw, respectively) and PA (119 °, 200 °, 88 °, 232 ° for Est, LSt, ESw, and LSw, respectively) trials was not present for any subphase of running. In the frontal plane, statistically significant difference (p > .05) was not present in the MCA between the baseline (264°, 187°, 207°, 174° for Est, LSt, ESw, and LSw, respectively) and PA (237°, 189°, 203°, 173° for Est, LSt, ESw, and LSw, respectively) trials for any subphase of running. CONCLUSIONS: Prolonged activity in shod runners does not appear to affect the intersegmental coordination.

Minimalist Running Shoes Increase Intrinsic And Extrinsic Foot Muscle Volume In Habitual Shod Runners

Minimalist footwear (MF) running has gained popularity recently partially because it is claimed to strengthen the intrinsic and extrinsic foot muscles. However, there is limited data on the change in muscle size associated with a transition to MF. PURPOSE: To examine the effects of a transition to MF on the intrinsic and extrinsic foot muscle volume. The relationship between participants’ compliance with MF and changes in muscle volume was also evaluated. METHODS: 20 habitual shod runners underwent a 6-month, transition program to MF running, including foot and ankle strengthening and a gradual increase in running in the MF. 18 matched shod runners were instructed in the same strengthening program, but they continued their normal mileage in their traditional running shoes. Runners’ compliance with MF was monitored using an online survey program. We measured intrinsic and extrinsic foot muscle volumes with MRI before and after the program. RESULTS: Weekly mileage between groups was similar at baseline (p=0.216) and after the program (p=0.612). However, runners in the MF group exhibited significantly larger extrinsic (p=0.011) and intrinsic (p=0.001) foot muscles after the program. Intrinsic foot muscle growth was mainly observed at the forefoot (p=0.004) but not the rearfoot region (p=0.104). Muscle volume of runners in the control group remained similar after the program (p=0.333-0.948). A significant positive correlation was found between participants’ compliance with MF and changes in the extrinsic muscle volume (r=0.506; p=0.023). CONCLUSION: Transition to MF running was associated greater extrinsic and intrinsic foot muscle volume. Additionally, the extrinsic muscle growth was correlated with the use of MF.Table 1: Muscle volumes (mm3/kg) before and after transition program in the MF group compared with the control

Evaluation of Energy Expenditure when Wearing Maximum Cushioned Running Shoes

Popularity of wearing maximum cushioned (MC) shoes by long-distance runners has increased over the last several years, primarily for the purpose of injury prevention and reduced stress. While maximum cushioning on the heels and midsoles can provide maximum shock absorption, the added weight of the shoes could negatively affect running economy. Previous research on the effects of various footwear types on energy expenditure has yielded conflicting results. PURPOSE: to determine the differences in energy expenditure among MC and standard (ST) footwear types. METHODS: Sixteen runners (8M/8F; age = 27.90 ± 13.13 years; weight = 71.2 3± 10.14 kg; height = 174.7 ± 6.51 cm) participated in the study. In a single data collection session, the participant was asked to complete three 6-minute running trials on a treadmill at a self-selected pace, under different footwear conditions. Footwear conditions included MC shoes (HOKA Conquest), ST shoes (New Balance Running Course), and ST shoes with the weight matched to the MC shoes (ST-W). A minimum of a 4-minute break was given between trials, and the order of the footwear conditions was randomized. For each running trial, oxygen consumption (VO2), heart rate (HR), energy expenditure (kcal), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were measured. Repeated measures ANOVA was used for each dependent variable (α=0.05). RESULTS: Overall, there was no difference among shoe conditions for any of the dependent variables. No difference in the average HR was observed among footwear conditions (MC= 161 ± 14.6, ST= 163 ± 11.9, ST-W= 162 ± 12.7 bpm; p>0.05). There was no difference among footwear conditions on average VO2 (MC= 42.7 ± 4.89, ST= 42.6 ± 5.30, ST-W= 42.9 ± 5.39 ml/kg/min; p>0.05) or energy expenditure (MC= 15.3 ± 3.21, ST= 15.3 ± 3.28, ST-W= 15.4 ± 3.34 kcal/min; p>0.05). Similarly, no difference in the RPE was observed among footwear conditions (MC= 12.5 ± 1.46, ST= 12.3 ± 1.40, ST-W= 12.5 ± 1.41; p>0.05). CONCLUSION: Additional weight of the MC shoes or adding weight to the ST shoes did not change energy expenditure and other physiologic measures, as compared with the ST shoe condition, during a 6-minute run. Mechanical benefits of the MC shoes are unknown, however the maximum cushioning did not seem to affect running economics.

8 Week Exercise Protocol and Minimalist Shoes Walking Effect on Lower Leg Muscle Size

Transitioning to minimalist shoes (MS) is desired by many runners. However, there are concerns about transitioning safely. Pre-transition exercises or low intensity training may facilitate this transition. PURPOSE: The purpose of this preliminary study was to investigate muscle size change after either 8 weeks of walking in MS or 8 weeks of following an exercise protocol. The muscles of interest in the lower leg were the tibialis anterior (TA), tibialis posterior (TP) and flexor digitorum longus (FDL). METHODS: 28 runners (22.6±2.6 yr, 174.4±10.3 cm, 70.0±13.0 kg) continued to run their usual weekly amount and were randomly assigned to a control group (n=7), MS walking group (n=7, progressively increase walking from 2500 steps in MS to 7000 steps/day at 8 weeks), or an exercise group (n=14, 8 weeks of progressive foot muscle exercises). Videos of the TA, TP and FDL were taken starting from a relaxed state to a contracted state and back to the relaxed state via B-mode ultrasound imaging using a 10 MHz linear probe (GE LogiqP6). Videos for the FDL were taken at a point 50% distal from the medial knee joint line to the inferior tip of the medial malleolus with the probe held perpendicular to the shaft of the leg. For the TP and TA the probe was held at a point 30% from the knee joint line to the inferior tip of the lateral malleolus. To obtain videos of the TA and TP, each participant was instructed to invert their foot. For the videos of the FDL, participants were instructed to flex their toes. Videos of the contraction cycle for the TA, TP, and FDL were recorded. 2 separate still-shots of the muscles at rest were saved from the recorded videos to make size measurements. Repeated measures ANCOVA with the respective baseline muscle size as covariate was run. RESULTS: There was a significant main effect for time for all muscles (p<0.02), and a significant group by time interaction (p<0.05) for the change in muscle size for the FDL and TP. The mean and SD for the muscles were TA: 2.5±0.3 cm, TP: 1.8±0.25 cm, FDL: 1.7±0.36 cm2. CONCLUSION: The data from this preliminary study appear to support the idea that walking in MS or performing foot intrinsic strengthening exercises may increase the size of some lower leg muscles. It is unknown if this increase in muscles size will alter the potential risks associated with a transition to minimalist shoe running.

Health Representations, Perceived Valence, and Concept Associations for Symbols as Food Cues: A Mixed-Methods Approach

ABSTRACTResearchers have experimented with a range of point-of-purchase (PoP) interventions in supermarkets, restaurants, and cafeterias. In general, these interventions have employed written materials. This research tested symbols to visually summarize information about the (un)healthiness of food. Study one explored health representations and valence associated with the image of a heart, a bathroom scale, and a running shoe using qualitative field interviews (N = 1200). Study two explored accessibility of a priori concept associations for two of those images, stratified by valence, in a computerized response latency task (N = 40). Study one indicted that the heart was best linked to its intended theme “heart health.” Concerning valence, the heart was seen as both positive and negative whereas the scale was less likely to be viewed as positive relative to the running shoe. In study two, the heart was linked to five of the six a priori concepts and there was evidence that three of these were more accessible. Overall, the heart was better linked to positive poles than negative ones. A heart symbol may be useful to prompt heart healthy choices at the PoP. There was evidence that a scale may bias choice away from undesirable foods.

Does “transition shoe” promote an intermediate biomechanical condition compared to running in conventional shoe and in reduced protection condition?

This study evaluated if running in a “transition shoe” commercially available results in intermediate mechanical load upon lower extremities compared to conventional shoe and minimalist shoe/barefoot. Kinematic and kinetic parameters while running in different shoe conditions were compared. Fourteen runners (12 men, 2 women; age=28.4±7.3 years), inexperienced in minimalist shoes and barefoot running, ran on an instrumented treadmill within four experimental conditions (conventional shoe – CS, transition shoe – TrS, minimalist shoe – MS, and barefoot – BF). Running was performed at 9km/h for 10min in each experimental condition. Vertical ground reaction force (VGRF) and two-dimensional kinematic variables of lower limbs (both legs) were recorded. Nine data acquisitions (10s) were conducted for each footwear condition. Transition shoe lead to significant changes in VGRF variables related to impact control, while kinematic parameters were little affected. The TrS had smaller first peak of VGRF (Fy1) than CS (p≤0.001) and higher than MS (p=0.050) and BF (p≤0.001). Time to first peak of VGRF (tFy1) of TrS was smaller than CS (p≤0.001) and higher than MS (p≤0.001) and BF (p≤0.001). The TrS and MS induced to lesser knee flexion (p<0.001) and greater dorsiflexion (p<0.001) than CS and BF. Thus, results suggest the transition shoe (TrS) tested seem to promote an intermediate mechanical load condition only for VGRF parameters, presenting values of impact forces between those found for conventional shoe and minimalist shoe/barefoot. Such knowledge could be useful for the transition process from conventional running shoe to minimalist shoe/barefoot.

Minimalist Running Shoes and Injury Risk Among United States Army Soldiers

Background: Minimalist running shoes (MRS) are lightweight, are extremely flexible, and have little to no cushioning. It has been thought that MRS will enhance running performance and decrease injury risk. Purpose: To compare physical characteristics, fitness performance, and injury risks associated with soldiers wearing MRS and those wearing traditional running shoes (TRS). Study Design: Case series; Level of evidence, 4. Methods: Participants were men in a United States Army brigade (N = 1332). Physical characteristics and Army Physical Fitness Test data were obtained by survey. Fitness performance testing was administered at the brigade, and the types of footwear worn were identified by visual inspection. Shoe types were categorized into 2 groups: TRS (stability, cushioning, and motion control) and MRS. Injuries from the previous 12 months were obtained from the Defense Medical Surveillance System. A t test was used to determine mean differences between personal characteristics, training, and fitness performance metrics by shoe type. Hazard ratios and 95% CIs were calculated to determine injury risk by shoe type, controlling for other risk factors. Results: A majority of soldiers wore cushioning shoes (57%), followed by stability shoes (24%), MRS (17%), and motion control shoes (2%). Soldiers wearing MRS were slightly younger than those wearing TRS (P < .01); performed more push-ups, sit-ups, and pull-ups (P < .01); and ran faster during the 2-mile run (P = .01). When other risk factors were controlled, there was no difference in injury risk for running shoe type between soldiers wearing MRS compared with TRS. Conclusions: Soldiers who chose to wear MRS were younger and had higher physical performance scores compared with soldiers wearing TRS. When these differences are controlled, use of MRS does not appear to be associated with higher or lower injury risk in this population.

Impact Accelerations of Barefoot and Shod Running.

During the ground contact phase of running, the body's mass is rapidly decelerated resulting in forces that propagate through the musculoskeletal system. The repetitive attenuation of these impact forces is thought to contribute to overuse injuries. Modern running shoes are designed to reduce impact forces, with the goal to minimize running related overuse injuries. Additionally, the fore/mid foot strike pattern that is adopted by most individuals when running barefoot may reduce impact force transmission. The aim of the present study was to compare the effects of the barefoot running form (fore/mid foot strike & decreased stride length) and running shoes on running kinetics and impact accelerations. 10 healthy, physically active, heel strike runners ran in 3 conditions: shod, barefoot and barefoot while heel striking, during which 3-dimensional motion analysis, ground reaction force and accelerometer data were collected. Shod running was associated with increased ground reaction force and impact peak magnitudes, but decreased impact accelerations, suggesting that the midsole of running shoes helps to attenuate impact forces. Barefoot running exhibited a similar decrease in impact accelerations, as well as decreased impact peak magnitude, which appears to be due to a decrease in stride length and/or a more plantarflexed position at ground contact.

An Acute Bout of Barefoot Running Alters Lower-limb Muscle Activation for Minimalist Shoe Users.

Despite the abundance of barefoot running-related research, there have been no electromyography studies evaluating the effects of this mode of exercise on habitual users of minimalist footwear. The present study investigated differences in muscle activation during acute bouts of barefoot and shod running, in minimalist shoe users. 8 male participants ran on a motorized treadmill for 10 min under both conditions, at 70% maximal aerobic speed. Electromyographic data were sampled from the biceps femoris, gluteus maximus, gastrocnemius medialis, tibialis anterior, and vastus lateralis during both swing and stance. Root-mean-square analysis of electromyographic data was conducted to compare muscle activation between conditions. During stance, barefoot running resulted in greater muscle activity in gastrocnemius medialis and gluteus maximus, and lower muscle activity in tibialis anterior. During swing, barefoot running resulted in increased muscle activity in vastus lateralis and gastrocnemius medialus. These results indicate that, for minimalist shoe users, an acute bout of barefoot running results in significantly different lower-limb muscle activity. Increased activation in the above muscles presents a possible mechanism for injury, which should be considered during exercise prescription.

Foot Morphological Difference between Habitually Unshod Runners and Shod Runners through Inverse Modelling

With the increasing popularity of barefoot running, the difference of foot morphology between habitually unshod runners and shod runners is becoming one concern leading to running injuries. The purpose of this study was to analyze the foot skeletal morphological characteristics between habitually unshod runner and shod runner through inverse modelling. A total of eight subjects, including four habitually unshod runners and four habitually shod runners participated in the Computed Tomography (CT) foot scanning test and Mimics was utilized to rebuild foot model and the Inter-Metatarsal Angle (IMA), Metatarsal-Phalangeal Angle (MPA), and Inter-Phalangeal Distance (IPD) were measured to illustrate the morphology difference. The results showed that the Inter-Phalangeal Distance and Inter-Metatarsal Angle of unshod runners were obviously bigger than those of habitually shod feet. And the difference of Inter-Metatarsal Angle between unshod runner and shod runner was also distinct. Not only can this finding be proven of foot morphology variations, but also it can confirm the development of nature foot from unshod running to shod running.

3D Printing And The Future Of Complex Legal Challenges: The Next Great Disruptive Technology Opportunity Or Threat?

The advent of 3D printing brought with it a variety of legal challenges, including intellectual property concerns. In 2014, the 3D printing technology is not futuristic sci-fi anymore. Goldman Sachs included 3D printing in a list of seven technologies that are reshaping the way we live and are reinventing, the notion of what’s possible. There is not a day anymore when you don’t hear about this technology. Examples are legion, such as: Philips announced a collection of new 3D-printed lamp line; NASA customized spacecraft and instrument parts using 3D printing, New Balance is introducing a track-specific running shoe that uses 3-D printing to create a plate on the sole of the shoe that is supposed to enhance performance with every step, Microsoft is extending its 3D modeling and printing application to the cloud, allowing users to create and print 3D objects, Nike 3D printed “concept cleat” for shuttle drill using SLS plate construction, etc.This article has two objectives. First, we quickly present how 3D printing works. Second, we discuss how 3D printing is raising new legal issues as it brings sophisticated manufacturing capabilities into the homes and offices of millions around the world and will become the next industrial revolution.

Effects of a minimalist shoe on running economy and 5-km running performance

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study was to determine if minimalist shoes improve time trial performance of trained distance runners and if changes in running economy, shoe mass, stride length, stride rate and footfall pattern were related to any difference in performance. Twenty-six trained runners performed three 6-min sub-maximal treadmill runs at 11, 13 and 15 km·h−1 in minimalist and conventional shoes while running economy, stride length, stride rate and footfall pattern were assessed. They then performed a 5-km time trial. In the minimalist shoe, runners completed the trial in less time (effect size 0.20 ± 0.12), were more economical during sub-maximal running (effect size 0.33 ± 0.14) and decreased stride length (effect size 0.22 ± 0.10) and increased stride rate (effect size 0.22 ± 0.11). All but one runner ran with a rearfoot footfall in the minimalist shoe. Improvements in time trial performance were associated with improvements in running economy at 15 km·h−1 (r = 0.58), with 79% of the improved economy accounted for by reduced shoe mass (P < 0.05). The results suggest that running in minimalist shoes improves running economy and 5-km running performance.

Injury risk in runners using standard or motion control shoes: a randomised controlled trial with participant and assessor blinding

Background/aimThis randomised controlled trial investigated if the usage of running shoes with a motion control system modifies injury risk in regular leisure-time runners compared to standard shoes, and if this...

The influence of footwear on functional outcome after total ankle replacement, ankle arthrodesis, and tibiotalocalcaneal arthrodesis

BackgroundGait analysis after total ankle replacement and ankle arthrodesis is usually measured barefoot. However, this does not reflect reality. The purpose of this study was to compare patients barefoot and with footwear. MethodsWe compared 126 patients (total ankle replacement 28, ankle arthrodesis 57, and tibiotalocalcaneal arthrodesis 41) with 35 healthy controls in three conditions (barefoot, standardized running, and rocker bottom shoes). Minimum follow-up was 2 years. We used dynamic pedobarography and a light gate. Main outcome measures: relative midfoot index, forefoot maximal force, walking speed. FindingsThe relative midfoot index decreased in all groups from barefoot to running shoes and again to rocker bottom shoes (p<0.001). The forefoot maximal force increased wearing shoes (p<0.001), but there was no difference between running and rocker bottom shoes. Walking speed increased by 0.06m/s with footwear (p<0.001). Total ankle replacement and ankle arthrodesis were equal in running shoes but both deviated from healthy controls (total ankle replacement/ankle arthrodesis smaller RMI p=0.07/0.017; increased forefoot maximal force p=0.757/0.862; slower walking speed p<0.001). In rocker bottom shoes, this ranking remained the same except the relative midfoot index merged to similar values. Tibiotalocalcaneal arthrodesis were inferior in both shoes. InterpretationRunners are beneficial and the benefit is greater for fusions and replacements. Rocker bottom shoes have little added benefit. Total ankle replacement and ankle arthrodesis were equal but inferior to healthy controls. Tibiotalocalcaneal arthrodesis has an inferior outcome.

Effects of shoe type and shoe–pedal interface on the metabolic cost of bicycling

Cyclists, coaches, and equipment manufacturers claim that cycling-specific shoes coupled with clipless pedals are ‘more efficient’. However, scientific evidence supporting or refuting these claims is lacking. We measured the metabolic cost of cycling at sub-maximal power outputs and tested the null hypothesis that there would be no differences between three different shoe-pedal combinations. Eleven healthy subjects participated (six males, four females, age 24.9 ± 6.84 yr, mass 69.98 ± 9.37 kg). We compared: (1) Nike Free 3.0 running shoes with flat rubber pedals, (2) Nike Free 3.0 running shoes with classic aluminium quill pedals, toe clips, and straps, and (3) the cyclists' own rigid-soled, cleated cycling shoes with corresponding clipless pedals. With the three different shoe-pedal conditions in random order, subjects completed three sequential 5-min cycling trials (50, 100, and 150W all at 90RPM) on a custom pan-loaded cycle ergometer equipped with a standard Monark flywheel. Subjects remained seated with both hands placed on the tops of the ergometer's racing-style handlebars. A 5-min rest period separated each of the three sets of trials. We analysed each subject's expired gases and from the rates of oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production, we calculated metabolic power in watts (W). As hypothesized, there were no significant differences (p > 0.57) in the metabolic power consumed for pedaling at 50,100, and 150 W: Nike Free and flat pedals: 445.7, 619.0, and 817.9 W; Nike Free and quill pedals with toe clips: 428.7,600.7, and 818.0 W and cycling shoes with clipless pedals: 441.6, 612.3, and 806.4 W, respectively. Though cycling shoes may have comfort or safety benefits, they do not enhance efficiency.