Routine Activity Theory Research Articles

This paper investigates the phenomenon of criminal convergence, the intersection between cybercrime and street-level deviance in Nigerian urban centres. It examines how the digitalization of fraud, popularly known as Yahoo-Yahoo, extends beyond cyberspace to fuel violence, cultism, and drug-related crimes among youths. Drawing on four key criminological theories: Strain Theory, Differential Association Theory, Routine Activity Theory, and Cultural Criminology, the study provides a multidimensional explanation for the rise of hybrid criminal networks that operate simultaneously online and offline. Strain Theory elucidates how socio-economic frustrations and blocked opportunities drive youth innovation through cybercrime; Differential Association Theory highlights the role of peer learning and socialization in transmitting deviant norms; Routine Activity Theory explains the situational opportunities presented by weak digital guardianship; and Cultural Criminology situates cybercrime within the glamorized cultural narratives of wealth, masculinity, and rebellion. Through these lenses, the paper argues that cyber-enabled criminality has transformed Nigeria’s urban insecurity landscape, creating new forms of violence, illicit economies, and governance challenges. It concludes that addressing this convergence requires integrated strategies that combine law enforcement reform, digital literacy, youth empowerment, and cultural reorientation to restore social order and mitigate the deepening crisis of urban insecurity in the digital age.

There is a growing intersection between AML and ESG, signalling a new phase in the criminology of finance. Although there is plenty of work on ESG and AML dimensions independently, little work is done in the overlapping space of the two in terms of risky activities and enforcement. Accordingly, this research proposes the ESG–AML Convergence Model as a novel theoretical instrument that facilitates an investigation into the assessment of how an advanced sustainability scene, like Malaysia’s forward-looking ESG landscape (including green finance and Islamic banking), may engender potential misuse cases of anti-money laundering. Using criminological theories like routine activity theory and convenience theory, the model shows how the perceived legitimacy of ESG initiatives can “conceal” AML risk. This helps fraudsters take advantage of greenwashing, due diligence and regulatory silos. One of the important findings, particularly concerning, is that there are systemic weaknesses in Malaysia’s financial system, manifested in ESG and AML compliance functions not being aligned; due-diligence processes are fragmented; and technology is limited in ensuring that transactions of an ESG type can be tracked. This conceptual paper provides specific actions based on government-wide governance, state-of-the-art analytics, and trans-regulatory coordination to better manage such risks in the future. Our contribution to the literature is twofold. This study will contribute to academic knowledge and provide tools for regulators, financial service providers and policymakers, by connecting the fields of financial criminology and sustainable finance policy, that further sustainability and financial integrity in developing countries.

The rapid digital transformation of the banking sector has expanded financial inclusion and efficiency but also exposed consumers to rising risks of cybercrime. In Sri Lanka, digital banking platforms such as Sampath Vishwa, PeoPay, and mobile wallets are widely adopted, yet cyberattacks including phishing and unauthorized transfers remain prevalent. Against this backdrop, this study investigates the impact of Digital Financial Literacy (DFL) on cybercrime victimization among digital banking customers in Sri Lankan commercial banks. Guided by the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and Routine Activity Theory (RAT), the research adopts a positivist philosophy and a deductive approach, employing a cross-sectional survey design. Data were collected from 381 digital banking users across provinces using a stratified random sample and analyzed through Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). Findings reveal that user attitudes, digital financial knowledge, and subjective norms significantly reduce the likelihood of cybercrime victimization, while perceived behavioral control and awareness showed no direct effect. Among control variables, age demonstrated a significant correlation with victimization, whereas gender and education did not. The study concludes that DFL is a multidimensional construct that functions both as a behavioral enabler and a guardianship mechanism, shaping safer online financial practices. The results highlight the urgent need for banks and policymakers to design structured literacy and awareness programs that strengthen consumer knowledge and attitudes while leveraging social influence to promote secure digital practices. By demonstrating the preventive role of DFL, the study contributes to theoretical discourse at the intersection of finance, behavior, and criminology, while offering practical insights to enhance cybersecurity resilience in the Sri Lankan banking sector.

Purpose The change in Thailand to a super-aged society means that elder protection has become a national priority. Although elder abuse is reported to the police and law enforcement is usually the first responder, they are not trained in protecting older people, particularly in cases of emotional abuse and economic exploitation. This study aims to present the prevalence of elder abuse in urban Thailand and examine the role, perception and limitations of law enforcement in elder protection. Design/methodology/approach The authors used a sequential, explanatory, mixed-methods design to collect survey data, specifically with 500 older adults, stratified randomly. Face-to-face surveys explored elder abuse, legal knowledge and awareness, and perceptions of police involvement in elder protection. Qualitative data were obtained through 20 key informant interviews (police, social workers, medical personnel and legal professionals). Quantitative data analysis included t-tests, ANOVA and regression; qualitative knowledge was thematically coded. Findings The form of elder abuse most commonly observed by older adults was emotional (44.2%) and economic (39.8%); rates were higher for emotional and economic abuse among female older adults and those with lower education. The best predictor of how older adults viewed police effectiveness was the level of education, legal knowledge, and previous engagement with police. The qualitative findings revealed challenges related to legal ambiguity, poor inter-agency coordination, and officer burnout. Cultural restrictions on families with elder abuse and the privatization of family violence were also issues to address. Research limitations/implications The study focused solely on urban contexts located in Bangkok; therefore, it may not consider rural or minority ethnospecific experiences. While this limits representational validity, sampling of key informants in this study created a selection bias across institutional perspectives. Although limitations impacted the representational validity of the general findings, the mixed-methods approach permitted strong data triangulation to imply, point to recommendations and generate future work with action. Future studies should concern rural–urban disparity, longitudinal movements in elder abuse and comparisons as to how law enforcement protections vulnerable elderly individuals in the local or international contexts. Practical implications The importance of implementing integrated Elder Protection Units within the Royal Thai Police, standardized inter-agency referral protocols in elder protection cases and training in elder rights and trauma-informed policing can effectuate real change in elder protection. The call for policy reform based on systemic gaps in public legal education, community awareness of empowering older persons through volunteers, is an actionable strategy with immediate implications to boost elder protection in Thailand and improve the consideration of older individuals’ dignity and rights through their engagement with social justice. Social implications Elder abuse identified within social structures by culture and silence is difficult to amend in Thailand. This research indicated that systemic deficits in policing, social protection and factors beyond themselves impacted individual factors in reporting elder abuse or neglect, endorsed normalization through silent family structures and spell blindness through the lack of responses by police as a symptom of systemic failures. Framing elder abuse as human rights concerns instead of individual ones promotes reformulation of police responder roles and behavior, catalyses engagement of community in the matter and promotes protection of elder persons' rights and dignity toward aging respectfully together. Originality/value This research is one of the few studies in Thailand to use amixed-methods design to investigate elder abuse and the role of law enforcement. The topic of this study focuses on a seldom discussed venue of the police as operational and perception lenses in how to contribute to restoring elder protection and protection in an aging society. The theoretical framework draws from social ecology, routine activity theories, victimology and costs that create nodes between criminology points of view and social welfare policy. The evidence draws on local and global lessons learned in monitoring and creating actionable recommendations with a reorganization of the role of police in elder protection matters contributing globally to the conversation of aging rights, and policing in the Asian region.

Terrorism attacks of late not only target key installations such as government buildings, embassies, and other critical infrastructure, but targets public institutions and individual enterprises characterized by little or no security, such as hotels and business stalls. This study was motivated by the fact that stalls in Nairobi Central Business District were attacked by terrorists in 2011, and no study has ever been conducted to address this attack. The objectives of this study were to examine the factors that expose stalls to the crime of terrorism and counterterrorism measures associated with the prevention of terrorism crimes against stalls. This study used the routine activities theory. This study adopted the descriptive research design that entailed both qualitative and quantitative dimensions of data collection and analysis. Purposive sampling was employed by selecting 120 stall operators, composed of 60 male and 60 female operators from the Nairobi Central Business District. The study used an interview schedule, composed of open and closed questions to answer the research questions. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences and presented using bar charts, pie charts, and tables. Regarding the factors exposing stalls to terrorism, the study found that 37% of stall operators thought stalls were easy to attack, while 36% of stall operators thought that the lack of CCTV’s exposed stalls in Nairobi Central. On the preparation measures, the study found out that 47% of stall operators considered criminalization of terrorism as an appropriate measure, while 36% of stall operators noted that private security guards have played a significant role by including stalls in developing response plans to the crime of terrorism. Regarding the preparation measures taken by stalls, 77% of the stall operators carried out testing and improvements in physical security in place. The study concluded that stalls in the Nairobi Central Business District are easy targets for the crime of terrorism, and more research is required to explain the reasons underlying the factors exposing stalls and soft targets to the crime of terrorism and the preparation measures taken by stalls and other soft targets.

Purpose This study aims to examine a range of factors − encompassing both micro- and macro-level perspectives, as well as institution- and industry-specific characteristics − that may account for the persistent exposure of banks to money laundering risk. This vulnerability persists despite ongoing efforts to curtail the exploitation of the banking sector as a conduit for illicit financial activities. Drawing on routine activity theory, this study analyzes how the convergence of motivated offenders, suitable targets and the absence of capable guardianship within the banking sector facilitates the continued occurrence of money laundering. Design/methodology/approach This study uses a qualitative research methodology, with a primary focus on the review and analysis of secondary data obtained from reports, official documents and relevant academic literature. Findings Numerous instances of money laundering demonstrate that, despite the implementation of robust safeguards, banks continue to knowingly or unknowingly internalize money laundering risk within their institutions. Although various risk management strategies have been adopted by banks, alongside regulatory interventions by authorities to shield the banking sector from such risk, complete immunity remains elusive. Accordingly, proactive and adaptive measures are essential to strengthen anti-money laundering efforts and more effectively combat the occurrence of money laundering activities. Practical implications The findings of this study suggest that banks remain vulnerable to money laundering risk. Consequently, they must continuously strengthen their efforts to assess pervasive threats and refine strategic approaches to effectively mitigate this risk. Originality/value This study offers a valuable contribution to the literature on money laundering by providing a contemporary analysis of the pervasive threats that banks continue to face.

The rise of online loans has been a major concern in Indonesia’s financial technology sector, especially due to their growing influence on university students. This study investigated how financial literacy, religiosity, and moral sensitivity shaped students’ ability to resist using online loans, a vulnerable demographic increasingly targeted by digital lenders. A quantitative approach was adopted, applying the Crime Triangle from Routine Activity Theory and the GONE Theory as its theoretical framework. Data were collected from 186 respondents through purposive sampling. The results showed that all three factors significantly and positively influenced students’ resistance to borrowing online. This study was distinctive in combining psychological and moral aspects into a predictive model that had not yet been tested in the Indonesian context. The findings contribute to behavioral finance literature and provide practical guidance for policymakers, educators, and fintech regulators in minimizing students’ exposure to online lending traps.

Financial fraud detection remains a critical challenge due to the dynamic and adversarial nature of fraudulent behavior. As fraudsters evolve their tactics, detection systems must combine robustness, adaptability, and precision. This study presents a hybrid architecture for credit card fraud detection that integrates a Mixture of Experts (MoE) framework with Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs), Transformer encoders, and Autoencoders. Each expert module contributes a specialized capability: RNNs capture sequential behavior, Transformers extract high-order feature interactions, and Autoencoders detect anomalies through reconstruction loss. The MoE framework dynamically assigns predictive responsibility among the experts, enabling adaptive and context-sensitive decision-making. Trained on a high-fidelity synthetic dataset that simulates real-world transaction patterns and fraud typologies, the hybrid model achieved 98.7% accuracy, 94.3% precision, and 91.5% recall, outperforming standalone models and classical machine learning baselines. The Autoencoder component significantly enhanced the system’s ability to identify emerging fraud strategies and atypical behaviors. Beyond technical performance, the model contributes to broader efforts in financial governance and crime prevention. It supports regulatory compliance with Anti-Money Laundering (AML) and Know Your Customer (KYC) protocols and aligns with routine activity theory by operationalizing AI as a capable guardian within financial ecosystems. The proposed hybrid system offers a scalable, modular, and regulation-aware approach to detecting increasingly sophisticated fraud patterns, contributing both to the advancement of intelligent systems and to the strengthening of institutional fraud defense infrastructures.

Purpose This study explores the application of machine learning (ML) algorithms to enhance the detection and reporting of Suspicious Activity Reports (SARs) in California’s financial sector. This research aims to improve anti-money laundering (AML) compliance by evaluating the effectiveness of advanced ML techniques, specifically CatBoost and Decision Tree algorithms, in identifying suspicious financial transactions. Design/methodology/approach This research uses a comprehensive methodological framework involving the analysis of 45,000 SAR filings from financial institutions and regulatory agencies in California, dating back to 2018. Various ML algorithms, including linear regression, random forest, decision tree and CatBoost, are used to analyze SAR filing patterns and predict suspicious transactions. Findings The findings reveal that CatBoost outperforms other models, offering a better fit to the data and higher predictive accuracy with a low RMSE and high cross-validation scores. The Decision Tree algorithm also demonstrates significant promise but is slightly less effective than CatBoost. This study confirms that ML algorithms, particularly CatBoost, significantly improve the detection and reporting of suspicious financial activities, thereby enhancing AML compliance. Originality/value This research contributes to the literature by integrating advanced ML techniques into AML compliance, moving beyond traditional statistical approaches. The findings provide practical implications for financial institutions, highlighting the potential of ML algorithms to enhance the effectiveness of SAR filings and bolster regulatory efforts in mitigating financial crime. This study underscores the value of ML in developing targeted policies to curb illicit financial activities and advance AML analytical capabilities.

This study explores the role of criminal offense prevention in enhancing road traffic safety through an interdisciplinary lens combining legal analysis, criminological theory, and empirical methods. Drawing upon frameworks such as Routine Activity Theory, General Deterrence Theory, and Situational Crime Prevention, the research examines how targeted legal interventions and enforcement strategies reduce the incidence of driving under the influence (DUI), excessive speeding, and reckless driving. Employing a mixed-methods approach—including traffic data analysis, case studies, geospatial mapping, and legislative review—the study compares enforcement outcomes across three European cities with varying traffic safety profiles. The results demonstrate that intensified legal measures, such as sobriety checkpoints and automated surveillance, correlate with significant reductions in traffic-related offenses and injuries. The findings further highlight a gap in existing legal practices concerning recidivism prevention among high-risk drivers. The research underscores the necessity of integrating criminological principles, public education, and technology-driven enforcement for sustainable improvements in road safety. This contribution advances policy-oriented discourse by providing empirically grounded recommendations for criminal law frameworks in traffic management.

ABSTRACT While previous research has explored the relationship between sporting events and crime in larger geographic spaces, research has not comprehensively examined how characteristics of sporting events influence arrests made inside stadiums themselves. Using a dataset of police records encompassing several seasons of the National Football League (NFL), this study explores how individual game characteristics influence the number of arrests made by police within the confines of the stadiums and stadium parking lots. Grounded in the routine activities theory, multilevel regression models suggest that certain game characteristics can influence the number of arrests made at a game.

Most prior research on religion and crime focuses on predictors of criminal behavior and neglects victimization. Studies of religion and victimization generally examine religion-based hate crimes. We present a theory of religion-based victimization drawing on routine activities theory, emphasizing how particular religious beliefs and practices may increase one’s vulnerability to predatory crime victimization due to opportunity, not hate. We draw on newspaper reports and secondary data to illustrate our theoretical propositions.

ABSTRACT This work focuses on image-based sexual abuse (IBSA), which involves the creation, dissemination, and/or threats to create or disseminate illicit sexual media without one’s consent. While much research is produced on cyber victimization in general, there remains a dearth of literature on theoretical explanation of IBSA victimization. This study aims to theoretically assess the applicability of a traditionally physical theory of crime, routine activity theory, to explain a digital form of interpersonal abuse: IBSA. This study relies on survey data of 506 18-to-24 year-old women in the United States to examine their experiences of six different types of IBSA: (1) creation of sexualized media, (2) dissemination of sexualized media, (3) being threatened with the creation or dissemination of sexualized media, (4) creation of media depicting unwanted sexual experiences, (5) dissemination of media depicting unwanted sexual experiences, and (6) sextortion. The current study asks what protective and risk factors are associated with the likelihood of experiencing IBSA? In analyzing a series of logistic regressions, the results indicate that spending time online, sexting, and proximity to motivated offenders in the form of association with deviant peers is correlated with IBSA victimization. These risk factors can assist in intervention and prevention responses to this form of abuse; however, these results indicate the feasibility of integration of a feminist lens through which to assess IBSA victimization.

ABSTRACT For many crimes, people who are the perpetrators may also be the victims. While several studies have investigated the victim-offender overlap, very few have examined the relationship for incarcerated youth where institutional conditions can exacerbate the overlap. Drawing on ideas from routine activities theory, this study explores the victim-offender overlap among incarcerated American youth using data from the 2008–2009 National Survey of Youth in Custody (NSYC-1, N = 8,625) and the 2012 National Survey of Youth in Custody (NSYC-2, N = 8,125). Findings from a bivariate probit regression indicate that younger age, higher facility populations, negative perceptions of officer legitimacy, experiences of filing complaints against staff, in-facility gang membership, and longer durations of time served in the facility increase the risk of both offending and victimization. The study illustrates the applicability of routine activity theory in understanding the victim-offender overlap in juvenile correctional settings and provides implications for policy and intervention strategies.

This study aims to analyze online fraud crimes in the group order (GO) system that occurs among K-Pop fans, focusing on how perpetrators build consumer trust and take advantage of opportunities in the online transaction system. Through a qualitative approach and case studies, this study found that perpetrators intentionally create trust in consumers through friendly and responsive communication. This case is often found in the K-pop fan community, where perpetrators, who are generally still in school, build trust through open promotions on social media and relaxed and responsive communication. Over time, perpetrators begin to reduce interaction and lack transparency until they finally disappear after the funds are collected. These findings are analyzed using routine activity theory, which emphasizes that crime occurs because perpetrators are motivated by appropriate consumers without supervision that can prevent crime. In this context, a weak pre-order system, lack of consumer education, and limited supervision from the authorities play a role as driving factors for crime.

Public calls for service to the police: Trends before and during drug possession decriminalization in Oregon.

Abstract Background. Religion has long served as a salient identity marker and a basis for social conflict, often making visibly religious individuals vulnerable to targeted violence. Despite growing scholarly attention to hate crime, few studies have examined how religiously motivated victimization and behavioral adaptation unfold across national contexts, particularly among young people. This study applies Routine Activity Theory to explore both risk exposure and post-victimization adaptation. Aims. This paper investigates religious hate crime victimization and subsequent adaptive behavior in four countries using a routine activity approach. We examine how various aspects of religious life and routine activities, such as identity visibility, public practice, and social networks, are associated with variation in the risk of experiencing religiously motivated threats or violence. Second, we assess the strategies reported by victims that may reflect efforts to manage perceived risk. Methods. Based on survey data from 4122 young adults, we compare risk and adaptation patterns across multiple national and religious contexts. Results. More visible religious expressions and public engagement are associated with a higher likelihood of victimization, while networks of co-religionists are linked to lower risk. Victimization is also associated with greater likelihood of risk reduction behaviors such as avoiding risky situations, carrying weapons, or relying on co-religionists for safety. Conclusion. The analysis contributes to Routine Activity Theory by highlighting associations between religious routines, identity markers, and perceived target visibility, as well as potential behavioral responses following victimization. Findings are consistent across countries, suggesting robust patterns of risk and adaptation with implications for theory, policy, and victim support.

Urgency to save species from extinction has prompted increased investment in law enforcement in protected areas. To date, such law enforcement has largely focused on increasing costs and reducing opportunities for offending. However, these resource-intensive approaches are not always effective and can contribute to conflict between people and conservation authorities, undermining human well-being and conservation goals. Drawing on criminal justice research, we considered how procedural justice theory-which examines how fair process and the perceived legitimacy of rules and enforcers influence behavior- could enhance understanding of compliance dynamics and complement existing law enforcement approaches, particularly in addressing low-level noncompliance in protected areas. We also explored how principles of procedural justice have been incorporated in general policing and outlined challenges and opportunities to integrating this approach into conservation law enforcement. We considered key opportunity-based (e.g., routine activity theory) and actor-based frameworks (e.g., deterrence theory) underpinning most protected areaenforcement. We then focused on procedural justice theory and the role of legitimacy in encouraging compliance. Evidence from general policing shows that when enforcers treat citizens fairly, listen, and make decisions objectively, they gain trust and legitimacy. In turn, people are more inclined to comply with laws and cooperate with enforcers. Procedural fairness can be implemented during encounters by embracing 4 pillars: neutrality, voice, respect, and trustworthiness. Outlining challenges of integrating this approach in conservation law enforcement, we highlight the need to address limited public trust in state authority and other factors including working conditions of enforcers. Alongside ensuring the integrity and accountability of conservation law enforcement, we argue that embedding principles of procedural fairness into interactions between enforcers and citizens could reduce low-level noncompliance. Success, however, requires conservation law enforcement to be reconceptualized by placing procedural fairness and legitimacy on a more equal footing with deterrence in research and practice.

Temperature increases due to climatic changes have been increasingly recognized as posing significant public health challenges, with wide-ranging socio-economic implications. This scoping review examines the relationship between high temperatures and violence against women (VAW) globally. Nine studies from both high-income and low- and middle-income countries were included in this review. The findings suggest an overall positive association between high temperatures and rates of VAW. Theoretical frameworks, including the temperature-aggression hypothesis and routine activity theory, offer insights into the mechanisms driving this relationship. Key risk factors such as socioeconomic status, urban heat island effects, rurality, patriarchal norms, and alcohol consumption were considered to be risk factors affecting rates of VAW. Despite growing evidence, research gaps persist, particularly in regions with high rates of VAW and in the form of qualitative studies that capture women's lived experiences. The positive associations between temperature and VAW underscore the urgency of integrating gender-sensitive strategies into climate adaptation policies to mitigate the compounding risks of climate change and gender-based violence.

Triangular fraud is a form of electronic transaction-based fraud involving three independent parties, where the perpetrator manipulates the trust relationship between the parties to gain illegal profits. This study analyzes a case of triangular fraud in the sale of used goods on Facebook using the Routine Activity Theory approach by Cohen and Felson (1979), which states that crime occurs when three elements converge: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of capable guardianship. The method used is a descriptive qualitative approach, with data collected through interviews with victims and perpetrators, as well as analysis of secondary documents such as articles, news, and journals. The results show that the perpetrators are motivated by economic factors and exploit gaps in Facebook's security system to orchestrate the fraud scenario. Victims, both experienced and inexperienced, are vulnerable due to a lack of verification, emotional states, and excessive trust. In addition, the lack of oversight from the platform, minimal digital literacy, and weak protection from law enforcement officers increase the likelihood of crime occurring. This study concludes that the three elements in the theory are interrelated and thoroughly explain how triangular fraud can occur. This research is expected to contribute to improving digital literacy in society and developing online consumer protection policies.