Route Bc Research Articles

On the microstructure and texture of Cu-Cr-Zr alloy after severe plastic deformation by ECAP

Samples of a commercial Cu-1Cr-0.1Zr (wt.%) alloy were subjected to severe plastic deformation at room temperature using equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) up to 16 passes via route Bc. The microstructure and texture of the processed samples were analyzed through electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). Most of the grains were more or less inclined in the direction of shearing (45° from the extrusion direction) and substantially refined. The deformation structure evolved from elongated grains to a duplex equiaxed-elongated microstructure upon straining. The fraction of high angle boundaries gradually increased with the number of passes up to 70%. The texture after ECAP was mainly of ECAP shear type whose components shifted slightly from their ideal positions. A net strengthening and stabilization of the B/B̅components were observed.

Effect of Secondary Mg17Al12 Phase on AZ80 Alloy processed by Equal Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP)

AZ80 alloy was subjected through Equal Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP) to refine the grains at three different temperatures 548 K, 573 K, and 623 K up to 4 passes for route Bc, where the specimen is rotated 90∘ counter-clockwise direction for each pass. In the present work, experiments have been continued with route Bc and the average grain size was obtained of 7 μm, 9.5 μm and 11.2 μm for the temperatures of 548 K, 573 K, and 623 K respectively after 4 ECAP passes. The average grain size of the procured AZ80 alloy was found to be 44.5 μm. Mechanical properties of AZ80 alloy have been improved to the corresponding various processing temperatures. X-ray diffraction studies have been done on a fourth ECAP processed specimen and compared with a zero pass specimen to know the phase transformation at different processing temperatures. Fracture behavior of each of the three materials was studied and it revealed brittle fracture by increasing the number of ECAP passes.

In vitro and in vivo studies of biodegradable fine grained AZ31 magnesium alloy produced by equal channel angular pressing

The objective of the present work is to investigate the role of different grain sizes produced by equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) on the degradation behavior of magnesium alloy using in vitro and in vivo studies. Commercially available AZ31 magnesium alloy was selected and processed by ECAP at 300°C for up to four passes using route Bc. Grain refinement from a starting size of 46μm to a grain size distribution of 1–5μm was successfully achieved after the 4th pass. Wettability of ECAPed samples assessed by contact angle measurements was found to increase due to the fine grain structure. In vitro degradation and bioactivity of the samples studied by immersing in super saturated simulated body fluid (SBF 5×) showed rapid mineralization within 24h due to the increased wettability in fine grained AZ31 Mg alloy. Corrosion behavior of the samples assessed by weight loss and electrochemical tests conducted in SBF 5× clearly showed the prominent role of enhanced mineral deposition on ECAPed AZ31 Mg in controlling the abnormal degradation. Cytotoxicity studies by MTT colorimetric assay showed that all the samples are viable. Additionally, cell adhesion was excellent for ECAPed samples particularly for the 3rd and 4th pass samples. In vivo experiments conducted using New Zealand White rabbits clearly showed lower degradation rate for ECAPed sample compared with annealed AZ31 Mg alloy and all the samples showed biocompatibility and no health abnormalities were noticed in the animals after 60days of in vivo studies. These results suggest that the grain size plays an important role in degradation management of magnesium alloys and ECAP technique can be adopted to achieve fine grain structures for developing degradable magnesium alloys for biomedical applications.

<i>In Situ</i> Testing and Heterogeneity of UFG Cu at Elevated Temperatures

Experiments were conducted to investigate deformation-induced processes during in-situ tensile test at elevated temperature. Consequently the microstructure after creep loading was examined by 3D Electron Back Scatter Diffraction (EBSD) technique. The billets of coarse-grained copper were processed by equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) at room temperature using a die that had an internal angle of 90° between the two parts of the channel and an outer arc of curvature of ~ 20°, where these two parts intersect. The pressing speed was 10 mm/min. To obtain an ultrafine-grained (UFG) material, the billets were subsequently pressed by route Bc by 8 ECAP passes to give the mean grain size ~ 0.7 μm. The constant strain-rate test in tension was performed at 473 K using testing GATAN stage Microtest 2000EW with EH 2000 heated grips which is configured for in-situ electron back scatter diffraction (EBSD) observations. Microstructure was examined by FEG-SEM TESCAN MIRA 3 XM equipped by EBSD detector HKL NordlysMax from OXFORD INSTRUMENT. The tensile test was interrupted by fast stress reductions after different deformation step and observation of microstructure changes was performed. Despite of a considerable interest in ECAP processing method, there are not many works documenting microstructure evolution and changes during creep testing and determining creep mechanisms of ultrafine-grained materials processed by ECAP. It was found that creep resistance of UFG pure Al and Cu is considerably improved after one ECAP pass in comparison with coarse grained material, however, further repetitive pressing leads to a noticeable deterioration in creep properties of ECAP material. Recently it was observed the coarsening of the grains in microstructure of ECAP copper during creep at elevated temperature. It was suggested that creep behaviour is controlled by storage and dynamic recovery of dislocations at high-angle boundaries. In the present work was found that ultrafine-grained microstructure is instable and significant grain growth has already occurred during heating to the testing temperature. Static recrystallization during heating led to the formation of high fraction of special boundaries Σ3 and Σ9. The tensile deformation at 473 K led to the additional grain growth and formation of new grains. Microstructure was investigated also by 3D EBSD.

Microstructure and properties of the novel Cu–0.30Mg–0.05Ce alloy processed by equal channel angular pressing

A novel Cu–0.30Mg–0.05Ce (wt%) alloy was designed and prepared by melting and casting. The hot-rolled Cu–Mg–Ce alloy with an average grain size of 24.3μm was processed by equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) via route BC with different passes at room temperature. Moreover, microstructure evolution, mechanical properties and electrical conductivity of the alloy subjected to ECAP with different passes have been analyzed. The transmission electron microscope observation and electron backscatter diffraction analysis results show that the grains were refined significantly and the low angle boundaries generated at the initial stage of deformation were gradually transformed to the high angle boundaries with increasing the number of ECAP passes. After 8 ECAP passes, the average grain size decreased to 1.2μm, and the fraction of high angle boundaries was 87.7%. Besides, the typical FCC shear textures ({111}<112>, {111}<110> and {001}<110>) were generated during ECAP deformation. Furthermore, tension testing results indicated that the tensile strength was remarkably improved from ∼274MPa before ECAP to ∼588MPa after 8 ECAP passes, maintaining an appropriate elongation of ∼11% and good electrical conductivity of 73.5% International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS), which showed bright prospect in high-speed railway as a contact wire material.

Ultrafine processing of (TiB+TiC)/TC18 composites processed by ECAP via Bc route

Equal channel angular pressing provides a convenient approach to introduce ultrafine grain size into commonly used metallic materials. In this study, equal channel angular pressing of (TiB+TiC)/TC18 composite was carried out under different passes via route Bc. Microstructure evolution is systematically investigated by optical microscope (OM), scanning electron microscope (SEM), and transmission electron microscope (TEM). The results show that grain boundary sliding contributes much to the plastic deformation and grains are refined largely to 100nm for (TiB+TiC)/TC18 with 0.2% B4C addition after two passes. The appearance of dislocation accelerates the transformation of spherical α recrystallized grains. Sufficient recrystallization is obtained after three passes. Tensile tests show that both high strength and elongation appear in the specimen with 0.2wt% B4C addition, which is deformed repeatedly after three passes. Equal channel angular pressing thus be a viable mode for producing titanium matrix composite with both high strength and ductibility.

The Origin of Fracture in the I-ECAP of AZ31B Magnesium Alloy

Magnesium alloys are very promising materials for weight-saving structural applications due to their low density, comparing to other metals and alloys currently used. However, they usually suffer from a limited formability at room temperature and low strength. In order to overcome those issues, processes of severe plastic deformation (SPD) can be utilized to improve mechanical properties, but processing parameters need to be selected with care to avoid fracture, very often observed for those alloys during forming. In the current work, the AZ31B magnesium alloy was subjected to SPD by incremental equal-channel angular pressing (I-ECAP) at temperatures varying from 398 K to 525 K (125 °C to 250 °C) to determine the window of allowable processing parameters. The effects of initial grain size and billet rotation scheme on the occurrence of fracture during I-ECAP were investigated. The initial grain size ranged from 1.5 to 40 µm and the I-ECAP routes tested were A, BC, and C. Microstructures of the processed billets were characterized before and after I-ECAP. It was found that a fine-grained and homogenous microstructure was required to avoid fracture at low temperatures. Strain localization arising from a stress relaxation within recrystallized regions, namely twins and fine-grained zones, was shown to be responsible for the generation of microcracks. Based on the I-ECAP experiments and available literature data for ECAP, a power law between the initial grain size and processing conditions, described by a Zener–Hollomon parameter, has been proposed. Finally, processing by various routes at 473 K (200 °C) revealed that route A was less prone to fracture than routes BC and C.

Microstructure and mechanical properties of an ITER-grade Cu–Cr–Zr alloy processed by equal channel angular pressing

An ITER-grade Cu–Cr–Zr alloy was subjected to equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) at 400°C via routes BC and C, i.e. rotated 90° or 180° around the extrusion axis before subsequent passes. The microstructure of ECAP deformed samples showed shear bands confining small recrystallized grains of about ∼0.2–1μm in size. The best mechanical properties were observed for sample ECAP processed via route BC for which the density of shear bands is high and the interaction among them is notable.

Microstructural Refinement in a Commercial Aluminum Alloy Processed by ECAP Using a Die Channel Angle of 110 Degrees

The properties of ultra-fine grained materials are superior to those of corresponding conventional coarse grained materials, being significantly improved as a result of grain refinement. Equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) is an efficient method for modifying the microstructure by refining grain size via severe plastic deformation (SPD) in producing ultra-fine grained materials (UFG) and nanomaterials (NM). The grain sizes produced by ECAP processing are typically in the submicrometer range and this leads to high strength at ambient temperatures. ECAP is performed by pressing test samples through a die containing two channels, equal in cross-section and intersecting at a certain angle. The billet experiences simple shear deformation at the intersection, without any precipitous change in the cross-section area because the die prevents lateral expansion and therefore the billet can be pressed more than once and it can be rotated around its pressing axis during subsequent passes. After ECAP significant grain refinement occurs together with dislocation strengthening, resulting in a considerable enhancement in the strength of the alloys. A commercial AlMgSi alloy (AA6063) was investigated in this study. The specimens were processed for a number of passes up to nine, using a die channel angle of 110°, applying the ECAP route BC. After ECAP, samples were cut from each specimen and prepared for metallographic analysis. The microstructure of the ECAP-ed and as-received material was investigated using optical (OLYMPUS – BX60M) and SEM microscopy (TESCAN VEGA II – XMU). It was determined that for the as-received material the microstructure shows a rough appearance, with large grains of dendritic or seaweed aspect and with a secondary phase at grain boundaries (continuous casting structure). For the ECAP processed samples, the microstructure shows a finished aspect, with refined, elongated grains, also with crumbled and uniformly distributed second phase particles after a typical ECAP texture.

Effect of pressing routes on the microstructure and strength in equal channel angular pressing of Cu-3.75Ag

The combined effects of thermo-mechanical treatment and equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) on the strength and microstructure of Cu-3.75Ag were studied. The strength of Cu-3.75Ag at 1% strain after eight passes of ECAP with two intermediate heat treatments reached 758 MPa and 849 MPa in route A and route Bc respectively. The hardness increased upon heat-treatment in route Bc, in contrast to the drop of the hardness in route A, suggesting that the hardening caused by re-precipitation is more active due to more effective dissolution of second-phase particles in route Bc. The flow stress increased more rapidly with intermediate heat treatments and reached 842 MPa after 8 passes, greater than that (791 MPa) without intermeadiate heat treatment in route Bc. The more rapid increase of strength/hardness and the attainment of higher hardness/strength after intermediate heat treatment are likely to be attributed to the formation of more stable wall structure and rearrangement of solute atoms/precipitates. The spacing between precipitates in Cu-3.75Ag ECAPed for 4 pass in route Bc was measured to be approximately 12.5 nm, which is close to the calculated activated length (12.8 nm). The most probable rate controlling mechanism of Cu-3.75 Ag is suggested to be the interaction between dislocations and precipitates.

Influence of Semi-Solid Casting and Equal Channel Pressing on Microstructure of a Hypoeutectic Al-Si Alloy

The aim of this work was to develop understanding of microstructural evolution of the alloy casted in semi-solid condition using a cooling slope and conventional casting followed by ECAP in a 120o die. Feed materials were prepared by cooling slope casting and conventional casting for ECAP process. The microstructures and Vickers hardness of the worked materials extruded by two routes (A and BC) were evaluated. The primary α-Al phase tends to be elongated after processing by route A. However, its morphology was similar in nature to the microstructure of the as-cast sample after processing by route BC. The Si particles become fragmented during ECAP processing and are more nearly globular in shape and uniform in size than in the as-cast sample. The microstructure of the semi-solid cast ECAPed samples was more homogenous than that of the conventional cast ECAPed sample followed by ECAP for both routes. The hardness of semi-solid cast ECAP samples was also higher than that of conventional cast ECAPed samples for both routes.

Characterization Of An Equal Channel Angular Pressed Al-Zn-In Alloy

Abstract Equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) is a technique that creates a high accumulated strain in metals and results in ultrafine-grained structure. In this study, Al-5Zn-0.02In was processed by ECAP at a room temperature using route Bc through an ECAP die (press angle of Φ = 100° and Ψ = 20°). The samples were subjected to ECAP with 1, 2, 3 and 4 passes. The processed specimens were characterized using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). The results confirmed the grain refinement of the alloy after ECAP to an average grain size less than 5 μm after 4-pass ECAP. The microhardness test shows that the hardness increased with the number of passes. The hardness of the cross-sectional area of the sample was similar to that tested along the pressing direction.

Effect Of Severe Plastic Deformation On Microstructure Evolution Of Pure Aluminium

AbstractProcesses of severe plastic deformation (SPD) are defined as a group of metalworking techniques in which a very large plastic strain is imposed on a bulk material in order to make an ultra-fine grained metal. The present study attempts to apply Equal-Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP), Hydrostatic Extrusion (HE) and combination of ECAP and HE to 99.5% pure aluminium. ECAP process was realized at room temperature for 16 passes through route Bc using a die having an angle of 90°. Hydrostatic extrusion process was performed with cumulative strain of 2.68 to attain finally wire diameter of d = 3 mm. The microstructure of the samples was investigated by means of transmission and scanning electron microscopy. Additionally, the microhardness was measured and statistical analysis of the grains and subgrains was performed. Based on Kikuchi diffraction patterns misorientation was determined. The measured grain/subgrain size show, that regardless the mode of deformation process (ECAP, HE or combination of ECAP and HE processes), grain size is maintained at a similar level – equal to d = 0.55-0.59μm. A combination of ECAP and HE has achieved better properties than either single process and show to be a promising procedure for manufacturing bulk UFG aluminium.

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Granular Pearlite Steel After Equal Channel Angular Pressing

Equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) of granular pearlite high carbon steel was carried out at room temperature via the Bc route. The microstructure evolution was investigated by means of scanning and transmission electron microscopy, and the mechanical properties of granular pearlite steel were measured by tensile and microhardness testing. After four passes, the microstructure was obviously refined. An ultrafine microduplex structure with 400 nm equiaxed ferrite grains and 200 nm cementite particles were formed. The yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, microhardness, and the ratio of the yield to tensile strength increased with the number of ECAP passes, however, the elongation slightly reduced. The tensile fracture morphology changes gradually from ductile fracture to ductile and quasi-cleavage mixed fracture.

Microstructural approach to equal channel angular processing of commercially pure titanium—A review

A review on severe plastic deformation (SPD) technique of equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) process of commercially pure titanium (CP-Ti) alloys was presented with a major emphasize on the influence of ECAP parameters that include channel and curvature angles, processing route, temperature of operation, pressing speed, internal heating, number of pass through the die and back pressure. Various ECAP characteristics such as microstructure, strain inhomogeneity and mechanical properties are considered to achieve the maximum homogeneity, equilibrium grain refinement and mechanical improvement of CP-Ti. Investigations show that a pressing speed of 1–3 mm/s at 450 °C with route BC along with channel and curvature angles of 90°and 20° respectively with backpressure can lead to the most homogeneous ultrafine microstructure.

Microstructure and texture evolution of Al-7075 alloy processed by equal channel angular pressing

Equal channel angular pressing is an effective technique to control the texture and microstructure of metals and alloys. Texture and microstructure of an Al-7075 alloy subjected to repetitive equal channel angular pressing through a 90° die were evaluated by X-ray diffractometer and orientation imaging microscopy. It is observed that processing through different routes leads to different types of textures, in both qualitative and quantitative senses. The texture calculation by Labotex software reveals that texture strengthens after the first pass and weakens by progressing ECAP process up to 4 passes. Microstructure investigations show that after 4 passes of equal channel angular pressing via routes BC and A, very fine grains with average grain size of about 700 nm and 1 μm appear, respectively, and most of the grains evolve into arrays of high angle boundaries. The effects of covering the Al-7075 billets with copper tube on texture and microstructure were also studied.

Effect of equal channel angular pressing on aging treatment of Al-7075 alloy

The effect of aging treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of equal channel angular pressed Al-7075 alloy was examined. Commercial Al-7075 alloy in the solid solution heat-treated condition was processed by equal channel angular pressing through route BC at both the room temperature and 120°C. Only three passes of equal channel angular pressing was possible due to the low ductility of the alloy at both temperatures. Followed by equal channel angular pressing, the specimens have been aged at 120°C for different aging times. Mechanical properties were measured by Vickers microhardness and tensile tests and microstructural observations were undertaken using transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffractometer as well as optical microscopy. Microstructural investigations showed that ultrafine-grained materials with grain size in the range of 200–350nm and 300–500nm could be obtained after three passes of equal channel angular pressing at room temperature and 120°C, respectively. Equal channel angular pressing of solid solution heat-treated Al-7075 alloy accelerates precipitation rate and subsequently leads to a significant decrease in aging time to attain maximum mechanical properties. Furthermore, it is possible to achieve maximum mechanical properties during equal channel angular pressing at 120°C as a result of dynamic aging and formation of small ɳ´ phase.

Processing of Copper by Equal Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP) – Microstructure Investigations

The present study attempts to apply Equal-Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP) to 99.99% pure copper. ECAP process was realized at room temperature for 4, 8 and 16 passes through route BC using a die having angle of 90°. The microstructure of the samples was investigated by means both light and transmission electron microscopy. Additionally the microhardness was measured and statistical analysis of the grains and subgrains was performed. Based on Kikuchi diffraction patterns misorientation was determined. There were some different types of bands in the microstructure after deformation. The shear bands, bands and in the submicron range the microshear bands and microbands are a characteristic feature of the microstructure of copper. Also characteristic was increasing of the number of bands with increasing of deformation and mutually crossing of the bands. The intersection of a bands and microbands leads to the formation of new grains with the large misorientation angle. The measured grain/subgrain size show, that the grain size is maintained at a similar level after each stage of deformation and is equal to d = 0.25 – 0.32 μm.

Study on New Extrusion Route of Equal Channel Angular Processing in High Purity Aluminium

The new extrusion route of ECAP which is called route 135 was put forward in this paper. The grain refinement of the traditional extrusion route BCand the new route of ECAP process in 99.9995% (5N5) high purity aluminum was compared using a die with a channel-intersection angle 90°. It was found through experiment that, the grain was very coarse in the cast ingot of 5N5 high purity aluminum, and the average grain size is about 60mm. High purity aluminum processed by one pass ECAP was refined notably, and average grain size is about 1000 μm. After two ECAP passes, the average grain size is 200μm with route BC, while it is less than 50μm with route 135. The refinement of two passes of route 135 is equivalent to the refinement of eight passes of route BC. It indicates that the route 135 is more effective than route BC. TEM micrograph of 5N5 high purity Al with different ECAP pass under route BCand route 135 was studied.

DSC analysis of commercial Cu–Cr–Zr alloy processed by equal channel angular pressing

Samples of a commercial Cu–1Cr–0.1Zr (mass fraction, %) alloy were subjected to equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) up to 16 passes at room temperature following route Bc. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was used to highlight the precipitation sequence and to calculate the stored energy, recrystallization temperature and activation energy after each ECAP pass. On another hand, electrical properties were correlated with the dislocation density. Results show that the stored energy increases upon increasing ECAP pass numbers, while the recrystallization temperature decreases significantly.