An automated system for precision root and leaf cutting of green onions: intelligent design, modeling, and experimental validation

Yield performance of rice with different root system architecture with combination of DRO1 and qSOR1 alleles under different fertilization regimes

Stu-miR393-5p and StTIR1A modulate adventitious root length, thereby directly affecting plant height of potato. An interaction occurs between the StTIR1A and StPLC2 proteins. Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), as the world's fourth-largest food crop, is frequently subjected to abiotic stresses-notably drought and high soil salinity-which impair growth and reduce yields. Modifying root architecture represents a promising strategy to enhance environmental adaptability. However, due to its shallow-rooted phenotype, research on the structural regulation of potato root systems remains limited. This study demonstrates that Stu-miR393-5p modulates plant growth through dual regulation of root system architecture and auxin homeostasis, primarily by altering adventitious root length and lateral root number. Dual-luciferase and GUS reporter assays confirmed direct cleavage of StTIR1A mRNAs by Stu-miR393-5p. StTIR1A expression was post-transcriptionally repressed by Stu-miR393-5p. Modification of the StTIR1A gene altered adventitious root development, lateral root number, and root auxin content in potato plants. We confirmed that StTIR1A interacts with StPLC2, StRACK, and StSINAT2 via yeast two-hybrid, bimolecular fluorescence complementation, and split-luciferase complementation assays. Analysis of the expression of StYUCCA3, StGH3.4, and StPIN1 in StTIR1A transgenic lines demonstrated that the Stu-miR393-5p-StTIR1A module participates in auxin signaling transduction and modulates root morphogenesis. Integrating these results with the known function of PLC2 in auxin homeostasis, we propose a coherent Stu-miR393-5p-StTIR1A-StPLC2 module. Collectively, our findings establish that this module regulates IAA signaling to shape root architecture, thereby opening a new avenue for research on improving potato root systems.

The root system is a crucial determinant of maize yield and stress resilience, particularly under drought stress. However, the complex genetic basis governing root system architecture remains largely elusive. To dissect the genetic architecture of the maize root, a transcriptome-wide association study (TWAS) was performed for 16 root traits in a panel of 357 diverse maize inbred lines. TWAS identified 2,978 significantly associated genes, of which 530 showed root-preferential expression patterns, representing high-confidence candidates for root development. Among these candidates, ZmSAUR21, a member of the Small Auxin-Up RNA gene family, was functionally characterized. Both CRISPR-Cas9-mediated knockout and overexpression analyses demonstrated that ZmSAUR21 acts as a key positive regulator of root growth by promoting cell elongation. Furthermore, the transcription factor ZmbZIP89 was identified as a direct upstream activator that binds to the ZmSAUR21 promoter to enhance its transcription, establishing a novel ZmbZIP89-ZmSAUR21 regulatory module. Crucially, ZmSAUR21-overexpressing plants showed substantially enhanced survival rates, improved water use efficiency, and a more vigorous root system under drought conditions. Collectively, this study uncovered a key regulatory pathway controlling maize root development and demonstrates that ZmSAUR21 is a valuable target gene for improving root systems and enhancing drought tolerance in maize breeding programs.

The maize (Zea mays L.) root system is crucial for nitrogen (N) acquisition, yet the genetic mechanisms underlying its adaptive response to low N remain poorly understood. This study aims to dissect the genetic basis of low-N-responsive root traits during early growth stage and examine their natural variation across maize subpopulations. We evaluated six root and two shoot traits under normal and low N in 387 maize accessions from four subpopulations. A genome-wide association study (GWAS) was conducted using 1.2 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and integrated with transcriptome data derived from lines exhibiting contrasting responses to low N to elucidate the genetic architecture underlying root adaptation to low-N stress. Seedling traits showed substantial variation, with broad-sense heritability ranging from 0.27 to 0.46. Under low N, plant height, shoot dry weight, and average root diameter decreased by 12.00%, 13.61%, and 3.62%, respectively, while root length, surface area, and root-to-shoot ratio increased by 14.31%, 10.27%, and 43.46%, respectively. The SS subpopulation exhibited stronger low-N responses in root elongation and diameter reduction compared to the Mixed and NSS groups. GWAS detected 246, 290, and 294 significant SNPs under normal N, low N, and low-N-response datasets, implicating 509, 603, and 855 candidate genes, respectively. Transcriptome profiling of inbred lines with contrasting low-N responses revealed 848 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in high-response lines and 431 DEGs in low-response lines. Integrated GWAS and transcriptome analysis and WGCNA identified 16 co-localized candidate genes, and narrowed to four core candidates. Haplotype analysis of the four core genes revealed significant phenotypic differences. The favorable haplotypes were enriched in the SS subpopulation and exhibited domestication signals. These results uncover key genomic regions and candidate genes governing root plasticity under low-N stress, offering valuable genetic targets for enhancing N-efficiency through molecular breeding.

Abstract Effective co-immobilization of arsenic (As) and antimony (Sb) in contaminated paddy soils remains a persistent challenge for conventional biochar amendments. To address this limitation, a magnetic biochar gel (FeRBG) was synthesized by integrating rice husk biochar, iron oxides, and graphene into a three-dimensional porous network. Its remediation performance and ecological effects were systematically evaluated in Sb-As co-contaminated soil-rice systems. Compared to pristine and Fe-modified biochar, FeRBG decreased (NH 4 )H 2 PO 4 -extractable Sb and As concentrations more significantly, by 23.1% and 22.3%, respectively, primarily by reducing non-specifically adsorbed fractions and promoting transformation into residual phases. Notably, FeRBG was the only amendment that significantly decreased Sb and As accumulation in rice grains by 16.1% and 34.0%, respectively, compared to the control. Furthermore, FeRBG enhanced root system architecture, increasing total root length, surface area, mean diameter, and tip number. Biochar amendment reshaped soil bacterial communities, with core taxa including Pirellulaceae, Nitrosomonadaceae , Sphingomonadaceae , and Comamonadaceae . Redundancy and correlation analyses revealed that soil Sb/As availability and Fe content were key environmental factors regulating bacterial community succession. Structural equation modeling revealed that FeRBG enhanced metalloid immobilization through Fe–O–Sb/As complexation, thus reducing grain accumulation and increasing rice yield. These findings provide a competitive functionalized biochar strategy for the sustainable remediation of Sb/As co-contaminated paddy soils and for improving rice cultivation.

Root biomass serves as a critical indicator of plant eco-physiological status and crop productivity, yet its non-destructive monitoring remains challenging because of its underground location. The use of transparent nutrient film technique (NFT) systems enables direct observation of entire root systems, rendering image-based phenotyping feasible. In this study, we investigated and compared the performance of RGB and hyperspectral imaging for predicting root dry weight in hydroponically grown spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.). Using 430 root segments divided from 60 plants, three models were developed: (1) an area-based regression based on root coverage, (2) a convolutional neural network (CNN) using RGB images, and (3) a partial least squares regression (PLSR) model using hyperspectral data (450-950nm). The area-based regression exhibited limited accuracy (R² = 0.446) because of saturation at high root coverage. The CNN model improved predictive performance (R² = 0.739) but tended to overestimate sparse roots as a result of resolution constraints. The PLSR model achieved the highest accuracy (R² = 0.822, RMSE = 0.019g/segment), with significantly lower error than RGB-based approaches (P < 0.01). Variable importance in projection analysis indicated that PLSR effectively exploited spectral signatures at 450nm (background contrast) and 750nm (tissue scattering), thereby maintaining stable accuracy across the full biomass range. When validated using 104 independent plants, the PLSR model achieved high predictive accuracy. Furthermore, as a proof of concept, this model successfully visualized the spatiotemporal dynamics of root biomass accumulation over 50 days, with only a 7.70% relative error at harvest. To our knowledge, this study is among the first to demonstrate the non-destructive monitoring of biomass distribution within entire root systems under production conditions. Hyperspectral imaging combined with PLSR outperforms RGB-based approaches by capturing spectral signatures that reflect internal tissue properties of roots, thereby overcoming limitations caused by morphological occlusion. This approach provides a robust tool for precision agriculture and high-throughput phenotyping, enabling continuous assessment of root growth through simple modifications to the existing hydroponic systems.

ABSTRACT The development of lacustrine, palustrine, and pedogenic carbonates through a continuum of sedimentary and diagenetic environments results in highly heterogeneous pore networks, which remain poorly characterized in palustrine and pedogenic facies in terms of their influence on petrophysical properties. These preclude any straightforward correlations between their physical properties and geological characteristics. This study investigates the diversity of elastic properties in fifty Cenozoic lacustrine, palustrine, and pedogenic micritic carbonates of the Paris Basin using samples from three boreholes and ten outcrops. This provides: i) a detailed petrographic framework, ii) ultrasonic measurements of seventy-six 1-inch plugs covering seven facies, and iii) a modeling approach based on the effective medium theory and Gassmann predictions. This study exhibits a broad range of porosities (1.7–40.5%), alongside unusually high P-wave velocities for a given porosity (4.1–6.5 km.s−1). The seven studied facies (wackestones with intraclasts, shell-rich floatstones, wackestones with root traces, peloidal grainstones, in-situ brecciated limestones, laminar limestones, nodular brecciated limestones) cannot be discriminated based on their elastic properties. Nevertheless, palustrine and pedogenic samples have similar properties, and about half of them display higher velocities than lacustrine facies. Nine diagenetic pathways were identified in these shallowly buried facies (maximum depth of ∼ 200m), which synthesize multiple calcite cementation, dissolution, and/or silicification phases, as well as cracks, but do not account for the observed acoustic dispersion. Studied rocks show six dominant pore types: microporosity, microbial framework, gastropod shells or roots moldic pores, root-related framework, and vuggy pores. They are the results of close relationships between depositional environment and diagenetic processes and provide a better explanation for the dispersion of acoustic data. The difference of acoustic values in palustrine and pedogenic versus lacustrine facies is explained by the prevalence of framework porosity inherited from root systems and vuggy pores from significant dissolution phases in palustrine and pedogenic carbonates. Samples with these pore types behave like an effective medium composed of slightly deformed spheres (aspect ratio close to 1), resulting in a stiffer response than standard differential effective medium models predict. Similar elastic behavior is found only in travertines in the literature. As often in pedogenic deposits, velocities are reduced when complete silicification occurs due to the quartz–calcite compressibility difference. In contrast, the micropores and moldic pores, frequently found in lacustrine facies, form a network resembling crack-like inclusions (aspect ratio ∼ 0.3), consistent with typical carbonate behavior. This study thus underscores significant contrasts in elastic properties between lacustrine and palustrine carbonates, offering new perspectives for distinguishing them across different scales and for investigating subsurface reservoir characteristics.

Background: Providing vigorously growing trees with well-developed root and shoot systems at the early stages in the orchard is essential for the widespread cultivation of fruit trees in general and figs in particular, as poor nutrition and slow growth naturally delay the entry of trees into the fruiting stage. Methods: Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effect of spraying with seaweed extract (Kelpak) at 0, 2, 4 and 6 mL-1 and citric acid at 0, 500, 1000 mg L-1 on some vegetative growth traits of young fig trees of the local CV. Khalou Baziani. A factorial experiment was applied using a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replicates. Result: Spraying with Kelpak at 6 ml L-1 significantly increased the studied vegetative traits (increase in main stem diameter, branch length and diameter, leaf area and relative chlorophyll content), which were recorded as (2.550 mm, 65.833 cm, 1.421 mm, 131.156 cm2, 43.104 CCI), while the 4 ml L-1 concentration was superior in leaf dry matter percentage at 19.977%. Citric acid at 1000 mg L-1 was superior in increasing branch length and diameter, leaf area, relative chlorophyll content and leaf dry matter percentage, which reached (59.584 cm, 21.30 mm, 114.60 cm², 42.215 CCI, 19.019%). A significant effect was observed due to the interaction between Kelpak and citric acid, where the treatment of 6 ml L-1 Kelpak combined with 1000 mg L-1 citric acid was significantly superior to the control in most studied traits.

Abstract Among the most cultivated crops worldwide, potato ( Solanum tuberosum) faces significant threats from water scarcity, owing to its shallow root system and high irrigation requirement. Water deficit disturbs homeostasis and critical physiological mechanisms, including photosynthesis, carbohydrate translocation, and starch metabolism in tuberous plants. It reduces CO₂ assimilation, modulates the expression of key enzymes involved in starch synthesis, such as ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase and starch synthases, and alters the amylose–amylopectin ratio, consequently affecting their rheological properties. Additionally, drought triggers antioxidant and metabolic responses in plants, including the accumulation of secondary metabolites and the regulation of stress tolerance-related genes. Transcriptomic analyses have revealed water-deficit responsive genes, such as StMAPK11 , StCDPK13 , and StERF94 , which contribute to stress adaptation. This review also explores mitigation strategies and genetic improvement approaches, including the application of biostimulants (chitosan, uniconazole), ZnO and SiO₂ nanoparticles, and the selection of more drought-tolerant genotypes. Recent advances in biotechnology, including gene editing and omics technologies, have contributed to the development of stress-resilient potato varieties.

In reclaimed and poorly drained soils, combined salinity–waterlogging stress markedly inhibits the early vegetative growth of maize. In this study, maize seedlings at 12 days after sowing (DAS) were subjected to combined stress by immersing the entire root system in 200 mM NaCl for 7 d (stress; ST), then transferred to recovery conditions and supplied potassium at equivalent activity (5 mM K+; soil drench) as KH2PO4 (ST + K + P), K2SO4 (ST + K + S), and potassium silicate (ST + K + Si) at 0 and 5 days after treatment (DAT). Morphological traits, chlorophyll fluorescence, and gas-exchange parameters were measured at PreTR (immediately after stress termination), 5 DAT, and 10 DAT. Phytohormone, mineral nutrient profiles, oxidative stress markers and redox status, osmotic and metabolic parameters, and the expression patterns of key ion transport and stress-responsive genes were quantified at 0 and 10 DAT. The effects of K supplementation were evident across the growth- and photosynthesis-related indicators. Treatment groups (ST + K + Si, ST + K + S, and ST + K + P) exhibited significantly higher carbon fixation capacity than ST at 10 DAT. The Na/K ratio was also notably reduced in all K-supplemented groups, indicating that ionic homeostasis was restored with K supplementation through improvements in various stress response indicators such as phytohormones, osmotic adjustment, and antioxidant responses. The potassium- and silicon-treated group showed the greatest recovery effect, which may reflect the physiological characteristics of cereal species. Overall, these findings provide foundational data for the development of cultivation technology to expand the cultivation area of maize.

Mediator is a central transcriptional coactivator that connects sequence-specific transcription factors with RNA polymerase II to control inducible gene expression in plants. MED16 is a Mediator tail module subunit that functions as a context-dependent integrator, helping coordinate developmental programs with environmental adaptation. This review summarizes current evidence for MED16 function from structural and evolutionary perspectives to physiological outputs, with emphasis on how MED16 interacts with transcription factors and other Mediator subunits to shape RNA polymerase II engagement at target loci. In terms of development, MED16 contributes to organ growth and root system architecture, and comparative studies have revealed that it plays conserved roles in lineage-specific wiring. Under abiotic stress, MED16 supports the efficient activation of stress-inducible transcription, including cold acclimation and nutrient stress responses such as phosphate starvation-dependent root remodeling. In immunity, MED16 modulates salicylic acid- and jasmonate/ethylene-associated defence outputs and can be targeted by plant viruses, which is consistent with its role in antiviral transcriptional responses. Mechanistically, MED16 participates in cooperative and competitive interactions within the Mediator complex that tune hormone-responsive outputs, exemplified by MED25-related competition in abscisic acid signalling. We highlight key limitations and future directions, including the need for mechanistic validation beyond Arabidopsis, clearer models of dosage control in crops, improved understanding of context-dependent tail configurations, and high-resolution mapping of MED16 interaction interfaces.

Urban freshwater systems are increasingly threatened by physicochemical deterioration and heavy metal accumulation, driven by rapid urbanization and wastewater inflows. The present study evaluates the phytoextraction and rhizofiltration potential of three floating aquatic macrophytes—water hyacinth (WH), Pistia stratiotes (PS), and duckweeds (DW)—for improving the water quality of Halasuru Lake, Bengaluru, India. Baseline monitoring revealed elevated dissolved solids, organic pollution loads, microbial contamination, and trace levels of heavy metals, including Cd, Pb, Cr, Hg, Zn, and As. Short-term phytoextraction experiments demonstrated progressive reductions in electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, alkalinity, hardness, COD, BOD, and pathogenic indicators, with duckweed exhibiting the highest remediation efficiency. Heavy metal concentrations declined systematically, with toxic metals showing significant attenuation. Long-term rhizofiltration conducted over 4 months resulted in approximately 45–50% reductions in major and trace metals, confirming sustained uptake by plant root systems. Comparative performance followed the order DW &gt; PS &gt; WH. The findings establish floating macrophyte-based remediation as a cost-effective, eco-friendly approach for restoring contaminated urban lake systems and highlight duckweed as a highly efficient candidate for large-scale water quality management.

Seed germination and early seedling development are critical determinants of crop establishment, stress tolerance, and yield stability, yet these stages remain insufficiently integrated into contemporary crop improvement strategies. Recent advances across genome editing, microbiome-assisted seed treatments, nanotechnology-enabled priming, and artificial intelligence-guided phenotyping have generated substantial but fragmented insights into early developmental regulation. This review synthesizes recent advances across early plant development research. It demonstrates that seemingly diverse technologies converge on a limited set of regulatory control nodes, including abscisic acid-gibberellin balance, redox homeostasis, and root system architectural plasticity. By integrating evidence from molecular, microbial, physicochemical, and computational studies, early plant ontogeny is presented as a tunable regulatory state governed by quantitative thresholds rather than as a strictly predetermined genetic process. Advances in deep learning, reinforcement learning, and high-throughput phenotyping further enable the modeling and optimization of early developmental trajectories across genotype by environment contexts. Together, these insights establish early development as a programmable target for crop improvement and provide a mechanistic foundation for designing integrated interventions that enhance developmental uniformity, stress resilience, and yield stability across diverse agroecological systems.

As a promising alternative source of natural rubber production, Taraxacum kok-saghyz Rodin (TKS) demonstrates significant rubber biosynthesis capacity in its root system. To elucidate the transcriptional regulation of rubber biosynthesis, we conducted a comprehensive genome-wide identification of transcription factors (TFs) and their temporal expression patterns during root development. Through genome-wide analysis, we identified 2095 transcription factors (TFs) distributed among 68 families in TKS; with the AP2/ERF-ERF family being the largest, comprising 169 members. RNA-seq profiling across developmental stages (10-80 DAP) revealed distinct spatiotemporal expression patterns. TF expression was initially elevated in young stems, while root-specific TFs, particularly from the WRKY family, peaked at 72 DAP. Sixteen root-enriched TF candidates were functionally validated for tissue specificity, with TkA01G586780 emerging as a key regulator showing elevated expression in mature taproots, transcriptional autoactivation capability in yeast, and activates promoter regions of three mevalonate pathway genes (ACAT3, HMGR6, MVK3) essential for rubber biosynthesis. This study provides the first systematic characterization of TKS transcription factors, revealing critical regulatory networks governing root development and rubber biosynthesis. Our findings establish valuable genomic resources for molecular breeding strategies to enhance rubber yield in this industrially significant alternative crop.

Erosional soil degradation remains one of the most dangerous factors reducing soil fertility and the ecological stability of agricultural landscapes. The article summarizes current concepts of the anti-erosion capacity of vegetation cover and its role in regulating surface runoff, dissipating the raindrop impact (splash) effect, stabilizing soil structure, and reducing soil loss. The significance of aboveground components (surface roughness, leaf–stem biomass, litter) and belowground components (root system architecture, root exudates) in enhancing aggregate stability and water permeability is elucidated. It is shown that vegetation cover is a manageable factor of anti-erosion protection through changes in cropping structure, the use of cover crops, residue mulching, and agroforestry practices. Particular attention is given to the representation of vegetation effects in erosion models via the C-factor (USLE/RUSLE) as one of the most “manageable” land-use parameters.

Drought and soil nutrient deficiency are critical constraints on plant growth and ecological restoration in desert steppes; however, the interactive mechanisms between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and phosphorus fertilization remain poorly elucidated. To investigate the regulatory mechanisms governing root system architecture (RSA) remodeling and regrowth capability in Agropyron under drought stress, a controlled experiment was conducted using two genotypes: Inner Mongolia (NM) and Xinjiang (XJ). The experimental design comprised three water regimes (70%, 50%, and 30% field capacity [FC]), two P levels (P0, P1), and two inoculation treatments (A0, A1). The results indicated the following: (1) Although drought significantly inhibited Agropyron growth, the combined application of AMF and P (A1P1) induced a highly significant synergistic effect, augmenting total aboveground biomass by 66.08–160.58% compared to the control. This synergy exhibited distinct “environmental dependency,” being most pronounced under moderate drought conditions (50% FC). (2) Mechanistic analysis revealed that A1P1 optimized RSA by significantly increasing total root length, root surface area, and root volume (e.g., total root length increased by 281.4–375.1% under severe stress), thereby enhancing water and nutrient acquisition. (3) The A1P1 treatment significantly mitigated the decline in regrowth potential induced by successive clipping, sustaining a higher tiller number (increasing by up to 1.8-fold in the 3rd clipping). (4) The XJ genotype was characterized by higher basal biomass and root investment “high-yield phenotype”, whereas the NM genotype demonstrated greater sensitivity to AMF-P regulation “highly responsive phenotype”. In conclusion, the synergistic interaction between AMF and P mitigates drought stress by reshaping RSA and enhancing regrowth capability, providing a theoretical basis for the efficient management of arid grasslands.

Abiotic stresses such as drought and heat increasingly threaten plant growth and ornamental quality, particularly in climate-sensitive floricultural crops. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are known to enhance plant resilience under such conditions, yet their role in lilies remains insufficiently explored. In this study, we used a two-tier experimental approach to evaluate AMF-mediated benefits in lilies. First, different AMF strains, namely Funneliformis mosseae (FM), Rhizophagus intraradices (RI), Rhizophagus irregularis (RIG), Claroideoglomus etunicatum (CE), Diversispora versiformis (DV), and a mixed consortium (MIX), were screened for growth-promoting effects in two Lilium species, Taiwan lily and Lilium cv. Sorbonne, under non-stress conditions. Second, a selected AMF-host combination from the screening was evaluated to improve tolerance to drought, heat, and combined drought + heat stress. Among the tested strains, DV and MIX showed the most consistent improvements across key growth traits and root colonization. In the stress experiment, stress treatments reduced growth and physiological performance, particularly under combined drought + heat. AMF inoculation enhanced plant performance by improving shoot and root biomass, improving root system architecture, and leading to a higher chlorophyll content, greater relative water content, and enhanced flower traits. Biochemical analyses further revealed that AMF mitigated stress-induced oxidative damage by reducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, as shown by reduced O2•- and H2O2 staining. This reduction in oxidative stress was supported by increased activities of key antioxidant enzymes, indicating that AMF activate cellular defense mechanisms. These findings underscore the potential of AMF as a sustainable biotechnological tool for improving stress tolerance in lilies and enhancing floricultural productivity under climate-challenged environments.

Multifaceted role of SOS3 in regulating plant development and salinity tolerance.

Phosphorus (P) deficiency severely limits crop yield. Plastid glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase 3 (G6PD3) is extensively involved in plant adaptation to abiotic stresses. However, little is known regarding the G6PD3 roles in plant adaptation to low P environments. Among G6PD family gene mutants, g6pd3 seedlings have the shortest primary root length under low P stress. G6PD3 transcription was markedly induced by low P stress, especially in the meristematic and elongation zones of primary roots and lateral root primordia. G6PD3 mutation increased the lateral root number but decreased the primary root length and the root/shoot ratio compared with WT, G6PD3 overexpression lines, disturbing root system architecture (RSA) reshaping induced by low P conditions. g6pd3 plants also exhibited other low P-sensitive phenotypes, such as high hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) levels and NADP+/NADPH ratio, reduced biomass, and delayed seed germination. qRT-PCR results further showed that the transcriptions of P-starvation responsive (PSR) genes (PHR1, Pht1;4/PT2 and Pht1;1/PT1) were markedly down-regulated in g6pd3 roots. Meanwhile, G6PD3 mutation down-regulated the expressions of genes related to auxin (IAA) synthesis, polar transport and signaling pathway, but up-regulated the expressions of cytokinin (CTK) synthetic genes under low P stress. This ultimately resulted in low IAA levels and high CTK levels in g6pd3 roots. Exogenous application of reduced glutathione (GSH) effectively alleviated the inhibition of primary root growth in g6pd3 seedlings under low P stress. Taken together, G6PD3 mutation disturbes RSA reshaping through affecting plant hormone (IAA and CTK) signals and H2O2 homeostasis, ultimately increasing the sensitivity of Arabidopsis to low P environments.