Roman Archaeological Site Research Articles

Abstract. Underwater photogrammetry presents unique challenges, including light attenuation, refraction, and turbidity, that affect the accuracy and quality of 3D reconstructions. This study investigates the performance of novel neural rendering techniques, Neural Radiance Fields (NeRF), SeaThru-NeRF, and 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS), in comparison to conventional Structure-from-Motion (SfM) workflows. Using a dataset acquired during the SIFET benchmark campaign on a submerged Roman archaeological site, we processed image data via Nerfacto, SeaThru, and Jawset Postshot (3DGS) and compared outputs against a reference model produced in Agisoft Metashape. Evaluation criteria included processing time, geometric accuracy (via M3C2 analysis), point cloud density and roughness, and point cloud completeness. Results show that radiance fields-based methods significantly reduce processing time while providing competitive visual results. SeaThru-NeRF demonstrated the highest geometric accuracy, benefiting from underwater-specific corrections, while 3DGS offered photorealistic rendering. These findings highlight the potential of neural methods for underwater cultural heritage documentation, though further improvements are needed in data fidelity and robustness under challenging underwater conditions.

For archaeological studies, the expected outcome of a Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) survey is a series of time-slices (or depth-slices) that mark the position of buried structures at different depths. The clarity of these time-slices is strongly site-dependent and is particularly worsened in the presence of even small percentages of clay, which strongly attenuates the GPR signal. This is the condition affecting the Greek–Roman archaeological site of Tindari (Sicily, Italy). Here, we performed a multichannel GPR survey particularly focusing on a residential insula. In order to increase the signal-to-noise ratio, we tested two processing strategies: a conventional in-line stacking and a new concept of off-line stacking. This last was performed dividing spatially adjacent channels of the GPR multichannel system into groups and stacking the signals of each group at each specific location. We observed that off-line stacking improves the signal-to-noise ratio in 2D sections and time-slices quality. Comparisons showed that off-line stacking has a clear advantage over traditional in-line stacking, at least for the specific application reported in this paper. Off-line stacking of GPR multichannel systems is, therefore, simple but very effective in increasing the investigation depth, especially in challenging environments.

La Vispesa is an archaeological settlement occupied from the First Iron Age to the Imperial Roman Period. The objectives of this study were to (i) perform a geomorphological characterization of the site; (ii) place it in its regional context; (iii) obtain values of uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) to characterize the construction materials; (iv) assess the chronological data obtained; (v) establish the origin of the sandstones used; and (vi) assess the application of these techniques at archaeological sites. UCS estimations were produced for the preserved walls using a Schmidt hammer, and two groups of samples were identified. In these samples, stones from the Iberian Epoch walls were considerably weathered, while the Roman ashlars were well preserved as they were built from better-quality material that produced high UCS values. In addition, measurements of various sandstone outcrops probably used as quarries were made to compare values. Only one sandstone outcrop had estimations that could relate to the provision of raw material for the Roman period, while other estimations are compatible with Iberian walls. The application of this methodology proves to be highly beneficial for the analysis and comprehension of ancient constructions.

The analytical characterization of mortar samples from the Roman archaeological site of Frielas, located in Lisbon, Portugal; was carried out by means of X-diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetry (TGA-DTG), optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), acid attack and granulometric analysis. A total of eighteen mortar samples were collected from the different structures of the villa with different functional uses (render, filler, and floor). The results showed a similar composition of binder, while differences in aggregates allowed to establish several groups. Results were discussed as evidence of manufacturing techniques, production technologies, and provenance of possible raw materials. There was no prominent variation that can suggest a different chronology between the group of samples. Though, it is assumed that there might be some renovation, restoration, or partial rebuilding that occurred in the same period. In terms of production technology, proportions ruled by Vitruvius were not followed.

This article describes the methodology used to automatically classify the constituent elements of a monochromatic mosaic from the Roman era. The classification involved the recognition of the tesserae (fragments of black and white materials for the floor ornamentation) of the mosaic using tools and algorithms implemented in Geographic Information System software (GIS). The analyses were performed using sample images expressly created by varying the colors on regular tiles in order to test the validity of the supervised classification in the ArcGIS environment. Subsequently, the same methodology was applied on mosaics from an ancient Roman archaeological site at Saltara; the results obtained from the classification process were compared to those obtained through visual reconstruction and manual vectorization. To assess the final quality and to validate the models obtained, a series of quality indicators were considered. The experimental results demonstrated that this approach offers effective classification in a short amount of time, making it a valuable tool for supporting work in the field of cultural heritage and, in particular, for the restoration and conservation activities of these artifacts.

Analysis of pigments and mortars from the wall paintings of the Roman archaeological site of Las Dunas (San Pedro de Alcántara, Malaga S Spain)

To better understand the location and help in the conservation of buried structures in the ancient site of Tusculum, in Central Italy, archaeological and multi-methodological geophysical studies were developed in the recent last years. These studies included geophysical surveys, which were combined with topographical survey and direct archaeological excavations. Tusculum is one of the largest Roman archaeological sites in the Alban Hills, located in the Latium region (Italy), about 25 km South-East of Rome. This settlement was inhabited since pre-Roman times, up to the middle ages. The objective of the Tusculum Project is to verify the town-planning of Tusculum and to obtain information about the location, shape, depth and size of the hypothesised buried buildings. With these aims, multi-methodological geophysical surveys have been carried out in the time range 2016–2019 to locate the archaeological remains in different portions of the studied area and to verify the orientation of the underground aqueduct system. GPR and gradiometric surveys were carried out to investigate the archaeological remains, while ERT surveys, were employed to find evidence of undiscovered parts of the underground aqueduct system. These results, along with geological studies and historic evidence, are being examined by archaeologist to understand the limits of the town and how water was supplied to such a large, populated settlement. The obtained results show very good correspondence between the buried architecture, the geophysical anomalies and the archaeological excavations. A number of unexpected buried buildings were discovered, which were excavated in 2017 and 2018, which showed remains of buried public thermal bath and a large church with surrounding funerary area built in the Middle Ages.

Recent technological advances are leading numerous researchers and professional users to the adoption of photogrammetric products for a wide range of geoscientific applications. Especially, drone-based Structure-from-Motion (SfM) photogrammetry is often applied as a high-resolution topographic modelling technique with advantages in terms of time and cost when compared to traditional surveying approaches. The aim of this work, carried out within the GeoArchaeo Sites Project, is to investigate the adaptability of drone-based surveys, even with a targetless approach, and to estimate bathymetrical accuracies in shallow waters. The approach was applied on an underwater site to show the potential for the digitalization and monitoring of an archaeological coastal geosystem in central Italy. Specifically, this work has compared the photogrammetric surveying capability of two drones including a Phantom 4 RTK (‘P4RTK’) and a low-cost Mavic Mini 2 (‘MM2’) and an Olympus TG-6 (underwater camera) for a site submerged with a maximum depth of ∼1.6 m. The assessment of the drone SfM-based products was performed through area-based and point-wise comparisons. Specifically, the area-based were assessed through an underwater photogrammetric survey obtained by acquiring images by an operator snorkeling along a portion of the site of interest. The point-wise comparison was performed using data acquired with a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). This study demonstrates that coupling SfM-photogrammetry and UAS-based surveys have potential to define submerged topography. In particular, the imagery acquired with the P4RTK survey can produce dense 3D models of the underwater surface with high resolution (about 0.02 m) and bathymetric measurements with a vertical accuracy ranging between 0.06 and 0.29 m for the area-based and point-wise analysis, respectively. Thus, the approach adopted and tested involving the use of a P4RTK has the potential to reduce constraints and limitations in terms of GCPs distribution and measurement. Also, with such an approach the need for qualified operators for underwater photogrammetric workflow can be avoided.

New challenges in archaeopalynology: Pollen analysis on Roman bivalve shells from south-western Europe and North Africa

The increasing use of geophysical investigations for archaeological purposes is now provided also by Italian reforms about preventive archaeology. They allow not only the discovery or the spatial definition of possible buried archaeological evidence, but they are also able to define the state of preservation of ancient structures. The Bocca delle Menate archaeological site is in Comacchio village territory, situated in Ferrara provence (Emilia Romagna region, Italy). The archeological site provides important evidence of the Roman presence in the Po Delta (Italy). The Roman villa was excavated between 1958 and 1959, during the reclaiming works in the Mezzano Valley (Comacchio, Ferrara). An archaeological preliminary survey and a geophysical field trip using Geomagnetic and Frequency Domain Electromagnetic Methods were carried out, following the aim to identify the planimetry of the villa previously excavated and eventually newly discovered archaeological remains. The geomagnetic results detected the archaeological buried structures, even if the original disposition of them is not completely highlighted. The electromagnetic method was able to depict the geological and geomorphological background surrounding the Roman villa. The obtained results highlighted that the applied geophysical methods are excellent tools for the preservation, protection, and monitoring of archaeological heritage previously excavated, adding to their already known importance as best tools for new archaeological buried remains detections.

The main objective of this research is to reflect on the effectiveness of virtual archaeology applications in school audiences for the understanding and learning of archaeological heritage. This is intended to appreciate how technologies such as Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality can add value to the educational proposals made by museums and archaeological sites that do not have this inclusion. The exploratory analysis of the case is carried out at the Santa Pola Sea Museum (Spain), which has developed this type of applications in the Roman archaeological site it manages, the Portus Ilicitanus.

The research presented in this paper focused on the preliminary non- and semi-destructive analysis of copper alloys, corrosion, and soil components from a Roman archaeological site in Israel. Investigations using portable X-ray fluorescence, X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy as well as micromorphological analyses were carried out to gain a better understanding of the corrosion processes affecting the copper alloy artefacts, by characterising the alloy composition, soil environments, and corrosion products. Preliminary results indicate that the artefacts consist of copper-lead-tin alloys, covered by copper hydroxy-chlorides and lead sulphate phases with slight variations in their crystallisation. The multi-analytical approach revealed the presence of quartz, calcite, gypsum and feldspars in the sediments, while thin sections more specifically indicate loess soils with local micro-environments

The archaeological cultural heritage and its inclusion in projects for the creation of tourist attractions, tourist products and marketing of the destinations are among the leading priorities in the field of tourism in Bulgaria. In this sense, the aim of the current paper is a review and analysis of the socialization of the immovable archaeological sites from the Roman period in the country. The socialization is considered from several aspects - exposure, preservation, presentation, provided services and organized events, accessibility, technical and ancillary infrastructure, advertisement. In each of them, the applied basic techniques and methods are studied and illustrated with specific examples of sites with national importance from the Roman period. In conclusion, more important problems and challenges related to the socialization are presented. Their resolution is of importance for the preservation of the immovable archaeological monuments and the sustainable development of tourism, based on archaeological heritage.

Abstract Finger cymbals, played with one pair in each hand like castanets, are iconic of the Middle Eastern ‘belly’ dance, which has been represented in numerous pictorial works and photographs since the 18th century. Middle Eastern dancers show that it is possible to dance while using two small cymbals in each hand, attached to two different fingers with straps from the cymbals’ holes. Starting from the observation that many such small cymbals have been found in Roman archaeological sites, this article asks whether Roman dancers played these small cymbals like Middle Eastern dancers do today. The question is complex, because Roman dancers were able to play small cymbals in other ways, such as holding just one in each hand, or inserting them into cymbal tongs. This article presents a typological and functional study of small metal cymbals attached to fingers in Roman iconography. Three examples are considered: a mosaic from the Roman city of Augusta Traiana (now Stara Zagora) in Bulgaria, and two stone reliefs, one from Orolaunum (now Arlon) in Belgium and another from the Podocataro Palace in Rome, dated from the 2nd to the 4th centuries ce. These remains testify to the use of fingers cymbals, two in each hand, attached directly to two different fingers, by dancers from the Roman Empire.

Almost every Roman site, particularly those where sizeable buildings have been found, also yield the remains of security systems – pieces of locks, hinges, keys and so forth that served to lock and secure the buildings as a whole or separate rooms, or chests and caskets. This is also true of sites in present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina, where such material has been found at various Roman archaeological sites. Most such objects are kept in the National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but some important artefacts are also located in the Franciscan Monastery in Visoko, the Museums in Doboj, Travnik, Tuzla, Zenica and Bijeljina, and other museum institutions and collections.

ABSTRACT Non-destructive investigation procedures are appropriate approaches for the qualitative mechanical assessment of heritage masonry structures. This study aims to contribute to the knowledge of one of the most common ancient masonry typologies, particularly in Roman archaeological sites, the rubble stone masonry, that is the ancient opus incertum, with an extensive experimental program carried out in the archaeological site of Pompeii. The research focused on archaeological masonry structures with different states of preservation and with or without modern interventions. A non-destructive investigation procedure was carried out including detailed geometrical and material surveys, visual inspections and an extensive program of sonic pulse velocity tests, with a total of 1965 acquired velocities. The paper describes the adopted investigation protocol and detailed analysis and discusses the experimental outcomes. Comparisons with available literature data concerning different masonry typologies at the Pompeii site are also presented. Furthermore, the results of the non-destructive investigation have been compared with available mechanical information from destructive and non-destructive tests performed by the authors on Pompeii-like masonry panels. The unique set of data collected may represent a sound tool for the estimation of the mechanical parameters of the ancient masonry structures, which is a crucial step for the definition of preservation actions.

The use of non-invasive methodologies is becoming essential for archaeological research, and ground penetrating radar is one of the most important techniques to obtain high resolution information. In this paper we present the analysis of a full 3-D GPR dataset integrated with a high-resolution photogrammetric survey acquired in a Roman archaeological site located in Aquileia (Northeast Italy) within the partially excavated area known as “Fondo Pasqualis”. We evaluated the importance of dense and accurate data collection and of processing of the GPR signal for characterization of the archaeological features. We further discuss the parametrization and the applicability of GPR attributes, in particular amplitude-based and coherence attributes, to better identify and characterise the archaeological buried targets. Furthermore, autopicking procedures for isosurfaces mapping were critically evaluated with the objective of detecting complex structures. The final interpretation of all the GPR features, with the support of digital terrain modelling and orthophotos from unmanned aerial vehicles, guided the archaeologists to open and excavate newly selected areas, which revealed interesting structures and contributed to the understanding of the historical events that characterized the Aquileia city.

Multi-analytical identification of a painting workshop at the Roman archaeological site of Bilbilis (Saragossa, Spain)

The application protocol impacts the effectiveness of biocides against lichens

New high precision full-vector archaeomagnetic data from a roman kiln in Mérida (Spain)