Role Of Implicit Theories Research Articles

The role of implicit theories in consumer intertemporal preference

PurposeThis study aims to investigate the psychological process of intertemporal choices between larger-later and smaller-sooner monetary options. Prior research showed consumer impatience – a tendency to prefer a smaller-sooner option over a larger-later option. This research identifies an individual difference that predicts patience and mediators that explain the underlying mechanism.Design/methodology/approachTwo studies are conducted. Study 1 examines whether the implicit theory of intelligence consumers endorse (i.e. entity theory vs incremental theory) constitutes an antecedent of patience and whether their thoughts regarding anticipated purchase with the chosen monetary option (i.e. hedonic versus utilitarian purchase) mediate the relationship. Study 2 analyzes whether psychological reactance toward larger-later options is a mediator in this relationship using a perceived threat to freedom and affect as reactance indicators.FindingsEntity-oriented consumers exhibited less patience than incremental-oriented consumers, especially when anticipating a hedonic purchase. Moreover, entity-oriented consumers perceived a threat to freedom from larger-later options more strongly – this enhanced perception influenced patience through two routes. One route is that the perceived threat to freedom leads to more consideration of a hedonic purchase rather than a utilitarian purchase, thereby decreasing patience. The other route is that the perceived threat to freedom elicits a stronger negative affect, resulting in lower patience.Originality/valueFindings of this research shed light on the understanding of patience. They demonstrate that consumers’ implicit theory orientation is a crucial individual difference that can explain patience. Also, demonstrating the mediating roles of anticipated purchase using the hedonic/utilitarian classification and psychological reactance expanded literature by showing how they internally interact.

Implicit theories shape responses to social-evaluative threat.

It is important to understand factors that make one more or less vulnerable to the harmful effects of social threat. This study focuses on the role of implicit theories (also referred to as mindsets) in shaping responses to a potent form of social threat, namely social-evaluative threat (SET). 124 individuals participated in an experimental study in which they were induced to have an incremental theory or an entity theory about their social skills. Next, they were exposed to SET in the laboratory. Psychological and physiological responses were assessed including social self-esteem, rumination, spontaneous mentions of concerns about one's social skills, and heart-rate variability. Compared to those induced to have entity theories, those induced to have incremental theories were buffered from the typical harmful effects of SET on social self-esteem, rumination, and concerns about their social skills. The association between implicit theories and heart-rate variability fell just short of significance.

Brand extension failure and parent brand penalty: The role of implicit theories

AbstractGiven that the vast majority of brand extensions fail, it is important to understand how extension failure influences consumer judgments of the parent brand that launched the extension. In the brand extension literature, there is a paucity of research on the role of consumer characteristics in influencing response to such failures. To fill this gap, the present research examines the impact of consumers' implicit theory orientation—their perspective on whether personality traits are malleable versus fixed—on the severity of negative feedback effects following extension failure. Seven studies show that entity theorists, who believe in the fixedness of personality traits, penalize parent brands more than incremental theorists, who endorse trait malleability. This brand penalty effect arises because as compared to incremental theorists, entity theorists are motivated to view brands as a cohesive group and therefore equate extension failure with the diminishment of the overarching parent brand. This effect is more likely when brand cohesiveness is low or ambiguous, but it is less likely when brand cohesiveness is high. Furthermore, while entity theorists are more likely to reduce brand evaluations after extension failure, the two groups do not differ in parent brand evaluations after extension success.

The role of implicit theories about climate change malleability in the prediction of pro-environmental behavioral intentions

Understanding the variables that influence pro-environmental intentions is key to promoting pro-environmental actions. In this research, we analyze how the sense of responsibility toward climate change and implicit theories about climate change (ITCC) interact to condition individual pro-environmental intention. A total of 48 psychology students with a mean age of 19 years were randomly divided into two experimental groups and participated in a pretest–posttest experiment. The experimental manipulation consisted of reading a news extract regarding scientific research: one group was given information stating that climate change is still reversible, instilling incremental ITCC; the other group was given the opposite information, instilling static ITCC. The results of the one-way ANOVA (F = 4.206, p < .05) showed that people with incremental ITCC presented a greater intention to behave in a pro-environmental way than did individuals with static ITCC. Moreover, the moderating analysis showed that ITCC act as a moderating variable in the relationship between the sense of responsibility and pro-environmental behavioral intentions. The sense of responsibility predicted pro-environmental behavioral intentions when individuals held incremental ITCC (p < .01) but not when they held static ITCC (p = .901). This research emphasized the relevance of promoting incremental ITCC interventions in the environmental education field, as the sense of responsibility toward climate change is deterministic but not in itself enough to acquire the intention to behave in a pro-environmental way.

The role of implicit theories in predicting creativity fostering teacher behavior: Gender as moderator

Classroom creativity represents a significant educational goal. Reaching this goal requires teachers to maintain an open attitude to creative ideas or behaviors, emphasize flexibility in behavior, and value critical intellectual and independent thinking. Since teachers play a crucial role in developing student creativity, we focused on predictors of teachers' willingness to foster creativity in a classroom. Drawing on implicit leadership and implicit followership theories, we examined how perceptions of ideal (effective) principals and ideal students predict teachers’ tendency to endorse creative behaviors in their classrooms, that is, creativity fostering teacher behavior (CFTB), and whether teacher gender moderates the relationship between implicit leadership theories (ILTs), implicit followership theories (IFTs), and CFTB. Four hundred sixty-one Israeli Arab teachers from 43 public schools completed an online questionnaire. Regression analysis showed their implicit beliefs predicted behaviors to foster student creativity. More specifically, teachers' perceptions of students and principals in terms of ideal prototypes were positively correlated with CFTB, and their perceptions of principals’ and students' anti-prototypes were negatively correlated. Further, the relationships between principal and student prototype perceptions and CFTB were stronger for female teachers. We discuss the findings’ implications for theory and practice.

The Role of Implicit Theories in Motivating Donations in Response to Threat-Based Awe

The present research investigates how charitable giving in response to threat-based awe, an emotional experience that typically accompanies disaster-relief campaigns, is likely to depend on consumers’ implicit theories. Although consumers want to behave prosocially when experiencing threat-based awe, due to the presence of threats, such behavior depends on whether they believe that their donations have sufficient efficacy. Consequently, in response to threat-based awe, consumers holding an incremental (vs. entity) theory perceive greater efficacy for their donations, which subsequently increases their charitable giving. These predictions are tested across five experimental studies. The findings of this research contribute to the literature on implicit theories and the emotion of awe and offer a more nuanced approach to how different consumers may be motivated to engage in charitable giving in the context of natural disasters.

Implicit Theories about Athletic Ability Modulate the Effects of If-Then Planning on Performance in a Standardized Endurance Task.

Muscular strength has a strong positive impact on cardiometabolic health and fitness. However, building up strength endurance requires effortful exercises. From a health perspective, it is important to understand which psychological strategies help people deal with straining exercise. Self-regulation strategies like if-then planning (also known as implementation intentions) appear particularly promising because they might directly alter how people deal with exercise-induced sensations. However, research on the effects of if-then planning on exercise performance has yielded mixed results so far. One possible reason for these inconsistent results is the lack of tailored interventions and the neglect of potential moderators. To address this, we investigated the efficacy of if-then plans that were tailored to perceived limits of endurance performance (i.e., perceptions of exertion versus pain). In addition, we investigated the effects of these tailored if-then plans while taking into account the potentially moderating effects of individual differences in implicit theories. Specifically, we were interested in the role of implicit theories about athletic performance (i.e., entity versus incremental beliefs) and about the limitation of athletic performance by mental versus physical factors (i.e., mind-over-body beliefs). N = 66 male students (age: M = 25.8 years, SD = 3.2) performed a static muscular endurance task twice (measurement: baseline task vs. main task) and were randomly assigned to a goal or an implementation intention condition. They were instructed to hold two intertwined rings for as long as possible while avoiding contacts between them (measure of performance: time-to-failure and errors). After the baseline task, participants were either given an implementation intention or were simply asked to rehearse the task instructions. The content of the instruction depended on whether they ascribed ultimate baseline task termination to perceptions of exertion or pain. After the main task, implicit theories on athletic ability were assessed. No differences in performance emerged between conditions. In the implementation intention condition, however, stronger entity beliefs were associated with increasing time-to-failure when participants planned to ignore exertion but with decreasing time-to-failure when they planned to ignore pain. This pattern of results was reversed with regard to mind-over-body beliefs. These findings indicate that the efficacy of psychological strategies hinges on recreational athletes’ beliefs regarding athletic performance.

The role of implicit theories in students' grit, achievement goals, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and achievement in the context of a long-term challenging task

This study first aims to investigate the role of students' implicit theories on their two grit facets (perseverance of effort [PE], consistency of interest [CI]) and on their achievement goals, learning motivation, and achievement in the context of a challenging academic task. Secondly, the study examines whether PE and CI are related to students' achievement goals, learning motivation and achievement. We surveyed 1215 students from the upper secondary school level with a mean age of 17.5 years, who completed a compulsory academic certificate paper over approximately one school year. The results of this study reveal that a more incremental theory was positively correlated with students' PE and CI. Furthermore, an incremental theory supports adaptive motivational patterns, such as stronger learning goals and higher intrinsic motivation, through which implicit theories are weakly related to academic achievement. This study finds evidence that PE and CI exhibit different motivational patterns. Whereas PE is positively correlated with mastery goals, performance-approach goals, and intrinsic motivation, CI demonstrates negative correlations with performance-approach, performance-avoidance goals and extrinsic motivation. In addition, PE is only weakly and CI not at all correlated with academic achievement through more adaptive learning goals and intrinsic motivation. Overall, the results confirm the significance of implicit theories for adaptive motivational patterns in the context of an educational achievement task. Finally, this study supports the claim that PE and CI should be treated separately due to their different correlational paths with motivational variables.

The role of implicit theories, age, and gender in the creative performance of children and adults

Given its importance in current society, understanding the individual differences that might encourage creative productivity should be an important focus for research. In this two-study paper, we suggest that an individual’s beliefs about the malleability of abilities and traits plays an important role in their creative performance. This relationship was examined in both children (Study 1) and adults (Study 2). For Study 1, data was collected from 58 pupils (aged 4–7 years). Participants completed a divergent thinking task, and their implicit theories of intelligence were measured. Results showed that holding an entity theory of intelligence was associated with lower scores on the divergent thinking task. For Study 2, 131 adults participated, completing an online divergent thinking task as well as reporting their implicit theories of creativity. Leading on from the findings of Study 1, endorsing an entity theory of creativity was associated with lower scores on the divergent thinking task. In both studies, the role of age and gender was examined. Results are discussed in relation to a potential avenue for interventions designed to encourage creativity.

Interest in and reactions to genetic risk information: The role of implicit theories and self-affirmation

RationaleImplicit theories reflect core assumptions about whether human attributes are malleable or fixed: Incremental theorists believe a characteristic is malleable whereas entity theorists believe it is fixed. People with entity theories about health may be less likely to engage in risk-mitigating behavior. Spontaneous self-affirmation (e.g., reflecting on one's values when threatened) may lessen defensiveness and unhealthy behaviors associated with fixed beliefs, and reduce the likelihood of responding to health risk information with fixed beliefs. MethodAcross two studies conducted in the US from 2012 to 2015, we investigated how self-affirmation and implicit theories about health and body weight were linked to engagement with genetic risk information. In Study 1, participants in a genome sequencing trial (n = 511) completed cross-sectional assessments of implicit theories, self-affirmation, and intentions to learn, share, and use genetic information. In Study 2, overweight women (n = 197) were randomized to receive genetic or behavioral explanations for weight; participants completed surveys assessing implicit theories, self-affirmation, self-efficacy, motivation, and intentions. ResultsFixed beliefs about weight were infrequently endorsed across studies (10.8–15.2%). In Study 1, participants with stronger fixed theories were less interested in learning and using genetic risk information about medically actionable disease; these associations were weaker among participants higher in self-affirmation. In Study 2, among participants given behavioral explanations for weight, stronger fixed theories about weight were associated with lower motivation and intentions to eat a healthy diet. Among participants given genetic explanations, being higher in self-affirmation was associated with less fixed beliefs. ConclusionStronger health-related fixed theories may decrease the likelihood of benefiting from genetic information, but less so for people who self-affirm.

The Role of Implicit Theories in Evaluations of “Plus-Size” Advertising

In this research, we examine plus-size female consumers' reactions to the use of plus-size female models in advertising. We demonstrate that not only objective body size but also implicit beliefs about the malleability of one's size affect attitudes toward a product advertised by a plus-size model. Further, we find that this interactive effect is mediated by perceived similarity to the model, and appears only when the plus-size model is used to advertise a body-relevant product. These findings contribute to the burgeoning study of larger-sized female models in advertising and suggest that “plus-size” is not a one-size-fits-all label.

Explaining Normative Versus Nonnormative Action: The Role of Implicit Theories

The current research investigates what motivates people to engage in normative versus nonnormative action. Prior research has shown that different emotions lead to different types of action. We argue that these differing emotions are determined by a more basic characteristic, namely, implicit theories about whether groups and the world in general can change. We hypothesized that incremental theories (beliefs that groups/the world can change) would predict normative action, and entity theories (beliefs that groups/the world cannot change) as well as group identification would predict nonnormative action. We conducted a pilot in the context of protests against a government plan to relocate Bedouin villages in Israel and a main study during the Israeli social protests of the middle class. Results revealed three distinct pathways to collective action. First, incremental theories about the world predicted hope, which predicted normative action. Second, incremental theories about groups and group identification predicted anger, which also predicted normative collective action. Lastly, entity theories about groups predicted nonnormative collective action through hatred, but only for participants who were highly identified with the group. In sum, people who believed in the possibility of change supported normative action, whereas those who believed change was not possible supported nonnormative action.

The role of implicit theories in mental health symptoms, emotion regulation, and hypothetical treatment choices in college students.

Beliefs about how much people can change their attributes - implicit theories - influence affective and cognitive responses to performance and subsequent motivation. Those who believe their attributes are fixed view setbacks as threatening and avoid challenging situations. In contrast, those who believe these attributes are malleable embrace challenges as opportunities to grow. Although implicit theories would seem to have important mental health implications, the research linking them with clinical applications is limited. To address this gap, we assessed how implicit theories of anxiety, emotion, intelligence, and personality related to various symptoms of anxiety and depression, emotion-regulation strategies, and hypothetical treatment choices (e.g., medication versus therapy) in two undergraduate samples. Across both samples, individuals who believed their attributes could change reported fewer mental health symptoms, greater use of cognitive reappraisal, and were more likely to choose individual therapy over medication. These findings suggest that implicit theories may play an important role in the nature and treatment of mental health problems.

The role of implicit theories in the non-expert translation process

Research into the role of implicit theories in decision-making covers a broad area ranging from personal to political relationships, and from private to professional life. To date, translation studies have paid little attention to the influence of translators’ knowledge and beliefs in the translation process, and even less to the role of implicit theories. In a pilot study with translation trainees, we attempted to reconstruct their theories about translation and discern to what extent these theories influence both the translation process and the translated text. Our results so far show that trainees do entertain initial implicit theories, which can be modified through experience and formal instruction. These initial implicit theories mainly focus on the notions of transfer and change, and do not reflect the complexity of translation phenomena. With regard to the translation process, our analysis of corrections as well as the length and structure of text-production segments suggests that the informants approach translation at a micro level, which may be partly due to the influence of their concept of translation as transfer. This pilot study is part of a broader research project that analyzes the evolution of initial implicit theories about translation as a result of experience and formal training, and to what extent changes in the theoretical framework of translation trainees can bring about changes in the way they translate.

Academic and emotional functioning in middle school: The role of implicit theories.

Adolescents face many academic and emotional challenges in middle school, but notable differences are evident in how well they adapt. What predicts adolescents' academic and emotional outcomes during this period? One important factor might be adolescents' implicit theories about whether intelligence and emotions can change. The current study examines how these theories affect academic and emotional outcomes. One hundred fifteen students completed surveys throughout middle school, and their grades and course selections were obtained from school records. Students who believed that intelligence could be developed earned higher grades and were more likely to move to advanced math courses over time. Students who believed that emotions could be controlled reported fewer depressive symptoms and, if they began middle school with lower well-being, were more likely to feel better over time. These findings illustrate the power of adolescents' implicit theories, suggesting exciting new pathways for intervention.

Does Accountability Attenuate or Amplify Stereotyping? The Role of Implicit Theories

Does accountability (the expectation that one will be called on to justify one's beliefs or actions to others) attenuate or amplify stereotyping? The authors hypothesized that the effect of accountability on stereotype use in impression formation depends on perceivers' implicit theory (entity versus incremental). The authors assessed the effects of accountability and implicit theories on participants' impression of the target (Studies 1 and 2), attention to the target's stereotype-consistent versus -inconsistent behavior (Study 1), and sense of being entitled to judge the target (Study 2). In both studies, accountability amplified the stereotypicality of entity theorists' impressions but, if anything, attenuated the stereotypicality of incremental theorists' impressions. Moreover, in Study 1, the more attention accountable entity (but not incremental) theorists paid to counterstereotypic information, the more stereotype-driven were their impressions. In Study 2, for entity theorists but not incremental theorists, perceived judgeability mediated the relationship between accountability and stereotypicality of judgment.

Negative moods and the motivated remembering of past selves: The role of implicit theories of personal stability.

This research program explored how the positivity of people's memories of their past personal attributes is influenced by their desire to cope with negative mood states. The studies tested the hypothesis that beliefs and motives regarding the stability of personality will determine whether people idealize or derogate their earlier attributes in an attempt to repair distressing feelings. When knowledge structures or motives implying personal change are activated, people should derogate their past selves in response to negative moods; in contrast, when these factors imply personal stability, people should idealize their past selves in response to negative moods. Studies 1-3, which assessed the impact of mood negativity (neutral vs. negative) and theories (or motives) regarding personal change (change vs. stability) on the positivity of people's memories of their past attributes, supported this reasoning. Study 4 extended these findings by examining how an underlying mediating variable--mood-repair motivation--guides the effect of negative moods on recall of past selves. Implications of the results for research on temporal comparison, mood-congruent recall, and posttraumatic growth are discussed.

The Role of Implicit Theories in Brand Extendibility

People often associate human characteristics with brands such that the notion of brand personality has become part of marketing's vernacular. This research documents how implicit theories regarding one's own personality traits (whether they are fixed or malleable) affect inferences about the malleability of a brand's traits. In study 1, we document how consumers who believe traits are malleable (incremental theorists) are more likely to be accepting of brand repositioning and brand extensions than consumers who believe these traits are fixed (entity theorists). In study 2, we examine the process underlying how people utilize implicit theories and show that differences in acceptability of brand extension are due to the effect of implicit theories on the strength of trait judgment and not differences in the number of brand associations generated. In study 3, we examine how implicit theories of the self affect internal trait consistency and the consequences of violating people's implicit theories.

Rôle des théories implicites à l'école primaire

Since the 50s, the role of implicit theories in the organization and interpretation of information has gained increasing acceptance among both cognitive and social psychologists. These implicit theories refer to the two different assumptions people may make about the malleability of personal attributes. They may believe that a highly valued personal attribute, such as intelligence or morality, is fixed, i.e. a nonmalleable trait-like entity (entity theory), or that the attribute is a malleable quality that can be changed and developed (incremental theory). The identification of these two theories allows us to understand the cognition, emotion and behavior of individuals in achievement situations. Many studies carried out in the primary school show that children who hold an entity theory of personal attribute (i.e. they consider badness like a stable quality) have a strong tendency to attribute their failures to a fixed trait. They are more likely to attribute failures to their bad abilities. In contrast, children who hold an incremental theory of personal attribute (i.e. they consider badness as a malleable quality) are more likely to understand the same negative outcomes in terms of specific factors: they attribute them to a lack of effort. In addition, several studies have shown that entity theorists are more likely than incremental theorists to react helplessly in the face of failure. They are more likely to show negative affect and behaviors. This helpless response pattern is characterized by a lack of persistence. In contrast, incremental theorists try harder and develop better strategies and continue to work. Finally, several studies demonstrate that environmental factors play an important role in the implicit theories elaboration.

Implicit theories of relationships: Implications for relationship satisfaction and longevity

The role of implicit theories in romantic relationships was investigated in two studies. People holding a soulmate theory, who believed that finding the right person is most important for a satisfying relationship, were compared to people holding a work–it–out theory, who believed that effort is most important for building a successful relationship. In Study 1, college students (N = 527) completed a set of questionnaires, including measures of relationship theories and functioning within romantic relationships. Approximately 8 months later, a subset of these students (N = 176) completed a second set of questionnaires for Study 1. The implicit theories were highly stable over time (r = .74). For soulmate theorists, feelings that one’s specific partner is ideal predicted relationship satisfaction and relationship longevity to a greater extent than for work–it–out theorists. Whereas Study 1 investigated people’s theories of relationships as ends of a bipolar continuum, a separate study explored people’s theories of relationships as two unipolar dimensions. Findings from Study 2 (N = 266) supported a representation of the theories as two negatively correlated factors, and supported findings from Study 1 highlighting the role of the interaction between the relationship theories and partner fit in predicting relationship satisfaction.