Roe Deer Research Articles

Spatial-temporal analysis of roe deer vehicle collisions in Bavaria.

Non-invasive assessment of the spatio-temporal variations of exposure to lead ammunition in Eurasian griffon vultures in Spain.

The article presents the findings on assessment of dose loads in the natural population of Siberian roe deer ( Capreolus pygargus Pal., 1771) living in the Semipalatinsk Test Site area. The calculated expected dose rate for roe deer living in the "conditionally background" area of the STS will not exceed 3.7 µGy/day, while for those in areas affected by radioactive fallout plumes, it will not exceed 150 µGy/day. The main contribution to the dose comes from internal exposure to 90 Sr. According to radiation effect scales for biota, depending on the dose rate of chronic exposure in various animal species, the calculated dose for the “conditionally background” areas of the STS correspond to natural background radiation. In areas with radioactive fallout plumes at the STS, the expected dose may reach the threshold for minor cytogenetic effects and stimulation in sensitive vertebrate species. According to the set of derived reference levels, the calculated dose for roe deer living in the “conditionally background” areas of the STS correspond to natural background radiation. In contrast, the doses calculated for roe deer living in areas with radioactive fallout plumes at the STS indicate an extremely low probability of any biological effects. At the technical sites of the STS, under the most conservative exposure scenario, the maximum possible dose rates may range from 1.6·10 4 –1.7·10 7 µGy/day. There are risks of a fairly wide range of effects, up to the occurrence of fatal radiation sickness (at the “Experimental Field”, “4” and “4A” technical sites). According to the risk of various effects, the studied areas can be arranged in the following decreasing order: RWA test sites (“4” and “4A”) > Experimental Field test locations > Degelen test locations > Balapan test locations > Sary-Uzen test locations > area of radioactive fallout plumes at the STS > areas of the STS without radioactive fallout plumes and test locations.

ABSTRACTAcross the northern hemisphere, ungulates are expanding in range and abundance, forming novel communities in increasingly human‐modified landscapes. These shifts drive new interactions over available food resources, but patterns of resource use and partitioning in Europe's multi‐species systems remain poorly understood. This study examined seasonal diets and resource partitioning in diverse cervid communities (moose, roe deer, red deer, and fallow deer) across two Swedish landscapes (coastal‐boreal and boreo‐nemoral) differing in deer density and land use. Based on their foraging strategies, we expected (Hypothesis 1) diet richness and dietary niche width to be greater in intermediate feeders (red and fallow deer) than in browsers (moose and roe deer), (Hypothesis 2) trophic partitioning between browsers and intermediate feeders to be driven mainly by graminoid use, and (Hypothesis 3) intra‐ and interspecific overlap to vary with season, deer density, habitat diversity, and proportion of arable land. DNA metabarcoding of 2568 fecal samples showed that deer consumed plants from over 70 families, though diets were typically dominated by fewer than 10. Vaccinium shrubs were key forages year‐round, while birch and willow dominated during the growing season. Moose consumed large amounts of pine in spring and winter (> 50% in the boreo‐nemoral, 35%–40% in the coastal‐boreal landscape), with less during summer‐autumn (~15%). Forbs were important for smaller deer, especially in spring and summer‐autumn, and more heavily used in winter in the boreo‐nemoral landscape, likely due to supplementary feeding with human‐provided food like hay or silage. Spruce use was low overall (< 5%), with fallow deer showing the highest intake. Consistent with Hypothesis 1, diet richness and niche width increased from moose to fallow deer. In partial support of Hypothesis 2, principal coordinates analysis (PCoA) revealed that graminoids contributed to trophic partitioning, but the pattern was not a strict browser–intermediate feeder divide. Moose consistently separated from the smaller deer due to avoidance of graminoids and reliance on pine and juniper, while roe deer, although a browser, sometimes overlapped with red and fallow deer through greater use of graminoids. During winter in the coastal‐boreal landscape, wavy hairgrass (Avenella flexuosa) contributed to the significant separation between browsing roe deer and intermediate‐feeding red deer diets, consistent with Hypothesis 2. Diet overlap among smaller deer varied with season and landscape. Intraspecific overlap was the highest in moose and the lowest in fallow deer, declining during summer–autumn across species. Overlap was influenced by deer density, habitat diversity, and arable land, consistent with Hypothesis 3, but effects were species‐specific and explained only limited variation. Our results highlight the dietary plasticity of red and fallow deer, which may intensify resource competition with moose and roe deer in multi‐species systems, particularly where supplementary feeding is common. These insights support adaptive, multi‐species management of deer in northern ecosystems.

Escalating Human–Wildlife Conflict (HWC), particularly involving protected large carnivores such as the wolf, poses a significant challenge in Europe. This problem, exacerbated by ecological pressure, necessitates the development of innovative, non-lethal, and effective prevention methods that overcome the limitations of current passive solutions, such as habituation. This article presents the design and implementation of a prototype for an autonomous, multi-sensory preventive system. Its three-layer architecture is based on a decentralized network of sensory-deterrent nodes that utilize Edge AI for real-time species detection and adaptive selection of deterrent stimuli. During field validation, the prototype’s biological efficacy as a proof-of-concept was confirmed in a crop protection scenario against the European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). The system’s deployment led to a near-total elimination of damages. The paper also presents key technical performance metrics (e.g., response time, energy consumption) and the accuracy of the implemented AI detection model, verified using both field and historical data. The positive test results demonstrate that the developed platform provides an effective and flexible foundation for preventive systems. Its successful validation on a common herbivore species represents a crucial, measurable step toward the target implementation and further research on the system’s effectiveness in providing protection against large carnivores.

Simple SummaryIn the agricultural landscapes of Central Europe, hundreds of thousands of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) fawns are killed annually during meadow harvests. To prevent this particularly unethical mortality of juveniles, wildlife managers employ various protection measures. One common method is to apply odor repellents in high-risk areas before harvest. Here, we evaluated the effect of the odor repellents on treated areas relative to controls without any measures. The abundance of fawns and adult roe deer was assessed before and after odor application using unmanned aerial vehicles equipped with thermal cameras. The results showed that roe deer numbers on treated fields did not differ from those on control meadows without repellents. The expected efficacy was not demonstrated either in the short term (i.e., in the days immediately following application) or over longer intervals of several weeks. The ineffectiveness of odor repellent for protecting roe deer during meadow harvest indicates shortcomings in current practice and underscores the need to adopt alternative methods, such as thermal-imaging drones.In Central Europe, the fawning season of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) directly overlaps with meadow and alfalfa harvest, typically from late May to early June. During these operations, tens or more likely hundreds of thousands of fawns are mutilated by agricultural machinery. To mitigate this unethical mortality, wildlife managers often deploy odor repellents to drive roe deer individuals from high-risk fields before mowing. Therefore, we evaluated repellent efficacy in a paired design. The abundance of roe deer was quantified by drones equipped with thermal cameras before and after repellent application and then compared with untreated control meadows. Results showed high adult abundance that did not differ significantly among treatments. The highest median was paradoxically observed on meadows “after application” (8.25 ind./10 ha), followed by “not treated” meadows (7.92 ind./10 ha), and “before application” (5.72 ind./10 ha). For fawns, differences between treated and untreated plots were likewise non-significant. Their numbers increased over time after application, consistent with the peak of parturition in the second half of May. Overall, the study confirms that the tested odor repellent, when applied according to the manufacturer’s protocol, did not reduce roe deer presence on meadows. This underscores the need to consider alternative approaches, such as the use of thermal-imaging drones combined with the subsequent translocation of detected fawns to safe locations.

Abstract The Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) is distributed throughout continental Asia. In Eastern Europe, individuals of the European roe deer species (Capreolus capreolus) displaying mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of C. pygargus have been recorded. However, it is not clear if the origin of this introgression is an effect of natural processes or a consequence of human-mediated translocation of the Siberian roe deer. Only a large-scale phylogeographic analysis, spanning both the natural range of C. pygargus and the introgression zone, can answer this question. To reveal the cause of the introgression and to provide the most comprehensive picture of Siberian roe deer phylogeography, we analysed the mtDNA control region fragment (610 bp) of 352 individuals combined with 132 sequences available in GenBank, covering a vast region extending from Eastern Europe to Eastern Asia. We detected 101 mtDNA haplotypes and 6 haplogroups. The proportion of different haplogroups, varying along longitudinal gradients, showed a notable shift in the central parts of Siberia. Haplogroups B and D were the most frequent in the introgression zone. Seven genetic clusters of Siberian roe deer, including two in the introgression zone, were detected. MtDNA diversity of Siberian roe deer proved to be greater than previously documented. Two genetically and evolutionarily distinct haplogroups, occurring predominantly in Europe, appear to be remnants of natural interbreeding between the two roe deer species that could have occurred during one hundred thousand years ago in at least two different time periods. Additionally, past human-mediated translocations of the Siberian roe deer contributed to the observed introgression.

Understanding predator–prey interactions is crucial for wildlife management and human–wildlife coexistence, particularly in multi‐use landscapes such as western Europe. As wolves Canis lupus recolonize their former habitats, knowledge of their diet is essential for conservation, management and public acceptance. However, data from these regions is scarce, in particular for the Alpine region and the Jura Mountains. As opportunistic hunters, wolves adapt their diet to the local prey structure, suggesting that abundant wild ungulates are the main prey source. We also expect diet composition to be influenced by region, season and social status. DNA metabarcoding has emerged as a powerful tool in ecological research, offering high‐resolution insights into dietary composition, yet its application in wolves remains limited. Using a DNA metabarcoding approach, we analyzed 698 wolf scat samples collected in Switzerland from 2017 to 2024. We found red deer Cervus elaphus was the dominant prey in most areas, and together with roe deer Capreolus capreolus and chamois Rupicapra rupicapra, accounted for 80.8% of the retrieved sequences. We found similarities in prey selectivity between the Alps and the Jura Mountains, but found significant differences across seasonal periods and between pack and non‐pack wolves. This study provides the first detailed dietary analysis of wolves in the northern Alps and Jura Mountains, offering critical insights for wildlife management. Our findings highlight the importance of wild ungulates in wolf diet and underscore the value of non‐invasive DNA approaches as a reliable conservation and biomonitoring tool.

IntroductionThe giant liver fluke, Fascioloides magna, is a parasite that primarily infects wild and domestic ruminants. Originally from North America, it has been an invasive species in Europe since the nineteenth century. Of the three natural foci that have become established in Europe, the Danube floodplain forest is the one that is still spreading. The first outbreak of fascioloidosis in Slovenia described in this report indicates that red deer (Cervus elaphus), fallow deer (Dama dama), and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) are the three wild ruminants affected by the parasite.Materials and methodsA total of 22 frozen deer livers (14 red deer, five fallow deer, and three roe deer) were subjected to necropsy, parasitological and molecular examinations. Molecular detection of the extracted parasites was performed using species-specific PCR and Sanger sequencing techniques.ResultsThe presence of F. magna was confirmed in all liver samples. The infected livers of red deer and fallow deer were characterized by marked enlargement and the development of pseudocysts and distinct black pigmented lines within the parenchyma, whereas the livers of roe deer were of normal size and contained only migratory paths.DiscussionThe first report and molecular confirmation of F. magna in red deer, fallow deer, and roe deer in Slovenia indicate a northward spread of the trematode along the eastern side of the Mura River. Hunters, veterinarians, and farmers should be made aware of the existence of F. magna in north-east Slovenia and encouraged to report any liver abnormalities in ruminants. Future research should aim to investigate the spread of F. magna, its origins and economic impact.

Latitude and elevation are the most commonly studied drivers of large-scale variation in the phenology of life-history events. However, these coarse gradients cannot reliably predict observed spatial variation in phenology. Although it is less often investigated, environmental predictability is also a selective force that constrains spatial variation in life-history events. Here, we explore how environmental predictability contributes to shaping spatial variation in the parturition phenology of roe deer across its distributional range in Europe. We compiled data on roe deer parturition dates across Europe within the research collaboration EURODEER, and from citizen scientists and related birth dates to elevation and environmental predictability, measured by Colwell's metrics of contingency and constancy, basedon high-resolution climate and NDVI values. We predicted parturition timing and synchrony simultaneously within a single modelling framework using a distributional regression model (i.e. GAMLSS). Our approach provided more robust predictions of variation in birth phenology than commonly used approaches based on the combination of latitude and elevation. We found that roe deer align their parturition dates with both elevation and seasonality in environmental conditions. We also identified an apparent shift towards later parturition from west to east across the distributional range in Europe, putatively linked to relatively milder and more constant climates in the west. Contrary to our expectations, we did not find any consistent link between parturition synchrony and environmental predictability, suggesting that other factors, such as small-scale heterogeneities in landscape composition, play a key role. Our work emphasizes the importance of understanding macrophenological processes in the variation of life-history event timing across space. It also highlights the need to account for this spatial variation when investigating region-specific adaptations, particularly in light of climate change.

Q fever, caused by Coxiella burnetii, is a widespread zoonosis characterized by environmental persistence and a broad host range. Wildlife and their associated ticks are increasingly recognized as crucial elements in the ecology of this pathogen; however, molecular data from these reservoirs in South Korea remain scarce. From April to December 2024, 2747 ticks were collected from 297 wild animals across 16 regions of South Korea. Tick species were identified, and the spatial and temporal distributions of C. burnetii and Coxiella-like bacteria (CLB) were analyzed using molecular detection and minimum infection rate (MIR) estimation. Multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis (MLVA) and multispacer sequence typing (MST) were used to genetically characterize C. burnetii detected in ticks. Four tick species were identified, with Haemaphysalis longicornis as the predominant species (84.6%). C. burnetii was detected at an overall MIR of 2.2%, varying by host species, tick species, region, and season. CLB was detected at a low MIR (0.5%), exclusively in ticks from Korean water deer. All C. burnetii-positive samples exhibited an MST77-like profile, and MLVA revealed a genotype closely related to those previously identified in placental samples from goats in France. This is the first report of this genotype in tick-derived samples from South Korea. These findings highlight the ecological importance of wildlife—particularly Korean water deer, raccoon dogs, roe deer, mountain rabbit, and badgers—in the maintenance and transmission of C. burnetii. The identification of genetically distinct C. burnetii genotypes and CLB underscores the need for ongoing molecular surveillance. This study supports a One Health approach to Q fever prevention and advances our understanding of the genetic diversity and transmission dynamics of the pathogen in wild ecosystems.

ABSTRACTThe spatiotemporal differentiation within habitats plays a crucial role in shaping community diversity and coexistence mechanisms. Exploring how species with similar ecological niches coexist remains a fundamental problem in ecology. We utilized infrared camera data to study the spatiotemporal activity patterns and interspecies interactions of three wild ungulates and sympatric livestock—red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus pygargus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), and cattle (Bos taurus)—in Xinjiang Kanas National Nature Reserve, China. By applying methods such as the multi‐species occupancy model, we explored how these species achieve coexistence through spatiotemporal niche differentiation. Results show that elevation (β = 0.595), aspect (β = 2.454), and tree density (β = 2.563) were key determinants of red deer occupancy; roe deer were strongly influenced by elevation (β = 1.789), aspect (β = 2.673), and slope (β = 0.796); wild boar occupancy increased with distance to water (β = 1.652) but declined with elevation (β = −1.567); cattle preferred lower elevations (β = −1.921). All three wild ungulate species positively correlate with the seasonal grazing covariate, indicating that their activities increase in summer. Their crepuscular activity patterns moderately overlap with those of cattle. The analysis of interspecies interactions reveals that cattle have a strong negative impact on red deer and roe deer (|ORsp| = 10.608 and 11.928, respectively); by contrast, the interaction between cattle and wild boar is relatively weaker. The spatiotemporal interaction analysis indicates that there is behavioral avoidance among species. Their co‐occurrence rates range from 25.9% to 51.9%, and the observed encounter intervals are longer than expected. This study emphasizes the disruptive impact of grazing and advocates taking measures such as shortening the grazing duration, limiting the grazing area, and removing physical barriers to maintain ecosystem health. Meanwhile, it is proposed to achieve long‐term conservation through interdepartmental collaboration and the establishment of monitoring systems.

Recreation (i.e., hiking and biking) and hunting can occur simultaneously in time and space, and both sources of disturbance affect wildlife behavior, leading to reactions resembling anti‐predator behavior. However, the additive effects of lethal and non‐lethal human disturbances on wildlife are only beginning to be understood, and research on the impact of hunting on non‐target species is limited. Recreation and hunting commonly co‐occur in areas where wildlife is present, and understanding their combined effects on wildlife behavior is crucial for protected area management. Using records from 122 camera traps placed along trails and in surrounding forests, we assessed the effect of varying intensities of hunting and recreation over space and time on the temporal activity of red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), and Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) in the Bavarian Forest National Park, Germany. We documented the relative abundance of these species on trails versus in forests and applied Bayesian models to assess how hunting and recreation influenced wildlife nocturnality. Our results suggest that hunting is a strong driver behind wildlife temporal behavior. Hunting amplified avoidance of non‐lethal recreation and potentially impacts species interactions. Red deer exhibited the most pronounced temporal avoidance of both hunting and recreational activity, increasing nocturnality and trail avoidance as these disturbances increased. Red deer were more diurnal in the non‐hunting zone and decreased nocturnal activity with increasing distance from the hunting zone. Wild boar and non‐hunted species exhibited moderate or negligible responses. However, high hunting effort led to species not targeted by hunting (roe deer and red fox) increasing their temporal avoidance of recreational activities, with wild boar and roe deer avoiding trails more strongly. In the context of protected area management, our results suggest that strictly reducing hunting in space and time while concentrating recreation in certain areas to create disturbance‐free habitat year‐round has great potential to reduce the temporal avoidance of humans by wildlife, thereby fostering nature conservation goals by protecting natural processes.

Recent zoonotic disease emergences emphasize the importance of studying wildlife parasite communities. As wild hosts frequently harbour diverse parasite species, understanding the drivers of multiple infection patterns in free-ranging hosts is critical for elucidating the ecological and epidemiological dynamics of parasite communities. In this study, we analysed co-infection patterns in European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) inhabiting a fragmented rural landscape in southwestern France. Using data from 130 samples of GPS-tracked deer, we examined the influence of proximity to livestock, host activity levels, age, sex and between-parasite interactions on the presence of 11 parasitic taxa. Hierarchical modelling of species communities (HMSC) revealed that proximity to livestock significantly increased the likelihood of infection with orofecally transmitted parasites (Toxoplasma gondii, gastrointestinal parasites). Sex and age were other key predictors, with males and juveniles exhibiting a higher frequency of parasite presence, likely influenced by hormonal and immune system differences. Activity levels showed distinct age-related effects, with higher activity levels being positively associated with increased parasite prevalence in yearlings, but not in adults. In contrast, parasite association patterns within individual hosts were weak, suggesting minimal interactions between parasite species. Our findings highlight the interplay between exposure and susceptibility in shaping co-infection patterns and underscore the value of hierarchical modelling approaches in multi-parasite systems.

Exposure to toxic trace metals is negatively associated with testis mass in wild male roe deer.

Testing the intermediate-disturbance hypothesis – managed roe deer populations are not disrupting forest faunal communities

Game meat has always been a part of the human diet. It is rich in protein and low in fat, and its consumption is increasing across Europe. The main objective of this paper is to enhance knowledge and understanding of large game meat production and consumption in Serbia. This study uses the official data provided by the Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia to calculate average hunting ground size, game population density and harvest rate. Game meat production data were obtained from four large game meat processing facilities and used for calculation of game meat yield and consumption rate. Serbia has a relatively small number of hunters, yet hunting grounds are extensive, covering nearly 92.6% of the country’s territory. Among large game species, roe deer constitute the most abundant population in Serbia. This population is characterized by medium size and density, with a relatively low harvest rate compared to other European countries. Wild boars are the most frequently hunted large game species in Serbia. Although their population density is low, it varies significantly across different hunting grounds, and the harvest rate remains high. The red deer population is comparable in size to that of neighboring countries, but has low density and a low harvest rate primarily due to ongoing population increase programs. The fallow deer population is steadily declining. Consumption rate, as well as game meat production Serbia is lower than in most European countries. A Serbian resident consumes as little as 0.120 kg of large game meat annually, accounting for just 0.3% of total meat consumption. These data represent the first quantitative data on game meat consumption in Serbia. Our findings suggest that there is significant potential to promote large game meat and boost its consumption in Serbia, especially considering the lower price of game meat – such as wild boars compared to domestic pork, and venison compared to beef.

Detection of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis DNA in wild deer in Scotland.

Simple SummaryMongolia is home to the Bogd Khan Mountain Strictly Protected Area, a UNESCO biosphere reserve and one of the oldest protected areas in the world. This forested mountain is a sky island surrounded by steppe habitat and the rapidly growing capital city of Ulaanbaatar to the north, which has encroached on the protected area since the democratic revolution in 1991. Wolves are the top predators, but they face threats from a growing urban area, livestock grazing, and free-ranging dogs. Using camera traps, we determined the wolf abundance and activity patterns within the protected area. We also modeled wolf activity patterns and examined whether they overlapped with those of people, dogs, livestock, and natural prey. Our results showed wolves avoided humans and livestock and had high spatial and temporal overlap with native ungulates. Wolf abundance was also not determined by the proximity to urban areas. These results will help the protected area administration monitor wolves and other wildlife, as well as identify areas of concern due to the impact of free-ranging dogs.Mongolia’s rapidly expanding capital is encroaching on Bogd Khan Mountain, a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve and the oldest protected area in Eurasia. Gray wolves (Canis lupus) in this wildland–urban interface are locally near-threatened due to hunting, local beliefs, and human–wildlife conflict. In 2022 and 2023, we deployed 72 camera traps (11,539 trap nights) to investigate how wolves respond to overlapping pressures from free-ranging dogs, livestock, and human activity. Using a random habitat-stratified camera design and abundance modeling, we assessed diel activity and spatial co-occurrence. Wolves exhibited nocturnal and crepuscular activity, with the greatest temporal overlap with wild prey (wapiti: ∆4 = 0.73; Siberian roe deer: ∆4 = 0.79), moderate overlap with dogs (∆4 = 0.60) and horses (∆4 = 0.68), and minimal overlap with cattle (∆4 = 0.40) and people (∆4 = 0.43). Mean wolf abundance estimates ranged from λ = 0.91 (CI 95%, 0.05–1.77) in 2022 to λ = 1.52 (CI 95%, 0.44–3.53) in 2023. Wolves were more abundant at higher relative abundance of wild ungulates and in areas with more people. Wolves co-occurred with dogs at 11 sites and were more abundant in areas with a higher number of dogs. Our findings highlight the complex dynamics between wildlife, livestock, and human-associated disturbances at the wildland–urban interface, underscoring the need for integrated management strategies that address both ecological and human dimensions of conservation.

Little is known about the vomeronasal organ (VNO), which is associated with socialbehaviors through pheromone detection in mammals, particularly ungulates. We investigatedthe distribution of phospholipase C beta 2 (PLCβ2), a marker of solitary chemosensorycells (SCCs), in the VNO of the Korean roe deer (Capreolus pygargus).PLCβ2-positive cells were detected in both the sensory and non-sensory epithelium of theVNO, and resembled the bipolar cells. PLCβ2-positive cells colocalized with cholineacetyltransferase, and Lens culinaris agglutinin. Furthermore,PLCβ2-positive cells were surrounded with trigeminal nerve fibers with calcitoningene-related peptide (CGRP)-positive immunoreaction. The results indicate that the VNO ofthe Korean roe deer exhibits a distinct distribution of SCCs, which may be involved indetecting risk factors such as harmful substances.