Danube Research Articles

Electrochemical Sensing of Cadmium and Lead Ions in Water by MOF-5/PANI Composites.

For the first time, composites of metal-organic framework MOF-5 and conjugated polymer polyaniline (PANI), (MOF-5/PANI), prepared using PANI in its conducting (emeraldine salt, ES) or nonconducting form (emeraldine base, EB) at various MOF-5 and PANI mass ratios, were evaluated as electrode materials for the electrochemical detection of cadmium (Cd2+) and lead (Pb2+) ions in aqueous solutions. Testing of individual components of composites, PANI-ES, PANI-EB, and MOF-5, was also performed for comparison. Materials are characterized by Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS), and their electrochemical behavior was discussed in terms of their zeta potential, structural, morphology, and textural properties. All examined composites showed high electrocatalytic activity for the oxidation of Cd and Pb to Cd2+ and Pb2+, respectively. The MOF/EB-1 composite (71.0 wt.% MOF-5) gave the highest oxidation currents during both individual and simultaneous detection of two heavy metal ions. Current densities recorded with MOF/EB-1 were also higher than those of its individual components, reflecting the synergistic effect where MOF-5 offers high surface area for two heavy metals adsorption and PANI offers a network for electron transfer during metals' subsequent oxidation. Limits of detection using MOF/EB-1 electrode for Cd2+ and Pb2+ sensing were found to be as low as 0.077 ppm and 0.033 ppm, respectively. Moreover, the well-defined and intense peaks of Cd oxidation to Cd2+ and somewhat lower peaks of Pb oxidation to Pb2+ were observed at voltammograms obtained for the Danube River as a real sample with no pretreatment, which implies that herein tested MOF-5/PANI electrodes could be used as electrochemical sensors for the detection of heavy metal ions in the real water samples.

Plant Remains and What Else? Environmental Archaeology of the Late Hellenistic Pit Fills of Sexaginta Prista, Northern Bulgaria

ABSTRACT This study combines several categories of environmental remains retrieved from machine-assisted water flotation samples, originating from the pit field of the Late Hellenistic archaeological site of Sexaginta Prista (2c. BC – 1c. AD), located on the River Danube in North Bulgaria. The analysis of the different organic remains, such as archaeobotanical macro-remains (seeds, wood charcoal and ‘food crusts’), fish scales, molluscs and animal bones, aims at exploring the possible utilisation scenarios of the pits, including crop/food storage and preparation, disposal activities and ritual practices and also allowed for a preliminary past-environmental reconstruction of the site during the study of interest.

Dipsacus gmelinii (Caprifoliaceae), a wetland species new to the Bulgarian flora

Abstract Dipsacus gmelinii is here reported as a new addition to the vascular flora of Bulgaria. It was recorded on Belene Island, in the Danube River. In the present paper, the species is described morphologically with an emphasis on carpomorphological characters. The distinctive differences from related species of the genus are also highlighted. Additionally, ecological conditions and floristic composition at the localities of the species, and phytosociological relationships of the communities in which it participates are discussed.

Are extreme floods on the Danube River becoming more frequent? A case study of Bratislava station

Abstract In this study, strong and extreme flood events were analysed on the basis of long-term daily runoff records of winter and summer floods in the Danube River between 1876 and 2020, using the peaks-over-threshold method. Based on the results, the following conclusions can be made: (1) There is a downward trend in strong winter floods, but it is not statistically significant. Additionally, there is an upward trend in summer floods, but this is not statistically significant. (2) There are statistically significant upward trends in extreme events for both the winter and summer seasons. The results have implications for flood protection and disaster management on the Danube River. Regulation of assets in flood-prone areas is essential for minimising economic damage. Public awareness of increasing extreme summer floods is vital for prevention. This study suggests that effective flood risk analysis requires (i) a local- to regional-scale approach to account for spatial variability and (ii) advanced statistical tools for robust detection of climate extremes and estimation of their occurrence rates.

Accumulation of microplastics in Zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha, Pallas, 1771) in the sand pit lake Kazichene, Bulgaria

In recent years, microplastic contamination has received worldwide distribution and specific attention. As a result, detecting sensitive bioindicators is crucial to establish the pollution. The aim of the present study is to investigate the accumulation of microplastics in zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha, Pallas, 1771) from the sand pit lake Kazichene. The natural range of the zebra mussel in Bulgaria includes the Danube River delta, the Black Sea rivers and coastal lakes. However, it is considered a wide spread invasive species to inland freshwaters. The use of invasive species as bioindicators over native species is advisable in order to protect the local biodiversity. In total 20 mussels of D. polymorpha were used for the analysis. The biological tissues of the mussels were digested with the aid of 30% H2O2 at 65°C for 24 - 48 hours. Microplastics (772 pcs. in total) were detected in all zebra mussel samples, indicating microplastic contamination in Lake Kazichene. Three main shapes have been identified: fragments, fibres and pellets, with the highest proportion of the fragments. The colours of the microplastic particles found were black, red, yellow and transparent, dominated by those of black colour, followed by red. The length of the fibres found in the zebra mussels ranged from 0.25 to 5 mm. There was no strong correlation between the body length/meat weight of zebra mussels with the degree of microplastic accumulation in the mussels.

Linking antibiotic resistance gene patterns with advanced faecal pollution assessment and environmental key parameters along 2300 km of the Danube River

The global spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in the environment is a growing health threat. Large rivers are of particular concern as they are highly impacted by wastewater discharge while being vital lifelines serving various human needs. A comprehensive understanding of occurrence, spread and key drivers of AMR along whole river courses is largely lacking. We provide a holistic approach by studying spatiotemporal patterns and hotspots of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) along 2311 km of the navigable Danube River, combining a longitudinal and temporal monitoring campaign. The integration of advanced faecal pollution diagnostics and environmental and chemical key parameters allowed linking ARG concentrations to the major pollution sources and explaining the observed patterns. Nine AMR markers, including genes conferring resistance to five different antibiotic classes of clinical and environmental relevance, and one integrase gene were determined by probe-based qPCR. All AMR targets could be quantified in Danube River water, with intI1 and sul1 being ubiquitously abundant, qnrS, tetM, blaTEM with intermediate abundance and blaOXA-48like, blaCTX−M-1 group, blaCTX−M-9 group and blaKPC genes with rare occurrence. Human faecal pollution from municipal wastewater discharges was the dominant factor shaping ARG patterns along the Danube River. Other significant correlations of specific ARGs were observed with discharge, certain metals and pesticides. In contrast, intI1 was not associated with wastewater but was already established in the water microbiome. Animal contamination was detected only sporadically and was correlated with ARGs only in the temporal sampling set. During temporal monitoring, an extraordinary hotspot was identified emphasizing the variability within natural waters. This study provides the first comprehensive baseline concentrations of ARGs in the Danube River and lays the foundation for monitoring future trends and evaluating potential reduction measures. The applided holistic approach proved to be a valuable methodological contribution towards a better understanding of the environmental occurrence of AMR.

Connectivity of Geochemical Composition of Sediments and Soils in the Large Urban River Catchment

ABSTRACT This article aimed to identify sources and transport pathways of macro- and microelements in large urbanized rivers under significant anthropogenic pressure. To achieve the objective of this study, the geochemical characteristics of the sediments of the Sava and Danube Rivers and the soils flooded by the Kolubara River were determined. The high content of Mg indicates the dominant origin of the material from loess deposits. The significantly higher contents of Cr and Ni in sediment and soil samples from the Obrenovački Zabran (OZ) than in the samples from the Veliko Ratno Ostrvo (VRO) are the result of increased anthropogenic pressure. Sediments from the VRO show increased Sn and Sb contents. The increase in the content of chalcophile elements is the highest in the sediments from the OZ and ranges from 1.8 to 2.7 times, compared to their concentrations in the Earth’s crust. The soils from OZ and the sediments from the VRO show a decrease in the content of chalcophile elements compared to the sediments from the OZ so the increase is 1.2–1.5, and 0.9–2.3 times, respectively compared to the Earth’s crust. The obtained results revealed that the yield of sedimentary material that has higher concentrations of microelements decreases already at a distance of several km.

Three hundred years of past and future changes for native fish species in the upper Danube River Basin—Historical flow alterations versus future climate change

AbstractAimRivers belong to the most threatened ecosystems on Earth. Historical anthropogenic alterations have, and future climate change will further affect rivers and the species therein. While many studies have projected climate change effects on species, little is known about the severity of these changes compared to historical alterations. Here, we used a unique 300‐year time series of hydrological and climate data to explore the vulnerability of 48 native fish species in the upper Danube River Basin to past and potential future environmental changes.LocationUpper Danube River Basins (Germany and Austria).MethodsWe applied a climate niche factor analysis and calculated species‐specific vulnerability estimates based on modelled and observed hydrological and climate data from 1800 to 2100. We compared the estimated species vulnerabilities between two historical time intervals (1800–1830 and 1900–1930) and a future time interval (2070–2100, including the two representative concentration pathways 4.5 and 8.5) to an observed reference time interval (1970–2000). In addition, we identified the main environmental drivers of species vulnerability and their change over the past 200 years and for the predicted 100 years in the future.ResultsOur results showed that (i) in the past, species vulnerability was mainly driven by changes in discharge, while (ii) future potential vulnerabilities would be due to temperature. Moreover, we found that (iii) future environmental conditions for riverine fish species driven by temperature would change at a similar magnitude as past hydrological changes, driven by anthropogenic river alterations. Future changes, projected for the RCP 4.5, would result in moderate species vulnerability, whereas for the RCP 8.5, the vulnerability for all species would substantially increase compared to the historical conditions.Main ConclusionAccounting for an extended timeline uncovers the extent of historical pressures and provides unprecedented opportunities to proactively plan conservation strategies that are necessary to address future challenges.

EDNA metabarcoding reveals the role of habitat specialization and spatial and environmental variability in shaping diversity patterns of fish metacommunities.

Information is scarce on how environmental and dispersal processes interact with biological features of the organisms, such as their habitat affinity, to influence patterns in biodiversity. We examined the role of habitat specialist vs. generalist species, and the spatial configuration, connectivity, and different environmental characteristics of river-floodplain habitats to get a more mechanistic understanding of alpha and beta diversity of fish metacommunities. We used environmental DNA metabarcoding to characterize species (taxa) richness and composition in two separate floodplains of the river Danube (Austria and Hungary) during two different hydrological conditions. Results showed that differences in the number of generalist and specialist species and their responses to connectivity and environmental gradients influenced patterns in alpha and beta diversity. Of the components of beta diversity, richness difference (nestedness) showed consistently higher values than replacement (turnover), mainly due to the decrease of specialist species along the connectivity gradient (i.e., from the mainstem to the most isolated oxbows). Variance in both alpha and beta diversity could be well predicted by a set of local and regional variables, despite high environmental variability, which characterizes river-floodplain ecosystems. Of these, the joint or shared variance fractions proved to be the most important, which indicates that the effects of local and regional processes cannot be unambiguously separated in these river-floodplain systems. Local scale environmental variables were more important determinants of both alpha and beta diversity in the low water period than in the high water period. These results indicate the differential role of local and regional processes in community organization during different hydrological conditions. Maintenance of both local and regional scale processes are thus important in the preservation of alpha and beta diversity of floodplain fish metacommunities, which should be considered by environmental management.

EVALUATION OF CHEMICAL INDICATORS OF ANTHROPOGENIC INFLUENCE IN THE LOWER DANUBE BASIN

The article explores the nature and trends of hydrochemical parameter connection and changes in the Lower Danube basin. The research examines nitrogen and phosphorus compounds, dissolved oxygen, and biochemical oxygen demand as indicators of anthropogenic influence and surface water quality alterations. The study was conducted between 2015 and 2023 at three sampling points: the Reni and Vilkovo water intakes on the Danube River and the Yalpuh Reservoir, which is connected to the Danube. The study employed mathematical statistics approaches. The research established changes in annual median values, investigated correlation links between chemical components by Spearman correlation, and implemented factor analysis by minimizing residuals. A spatiotemporal analysis of chemical components indicative of anthropogenic impact on the Lower Danube surface water revealed notable changes in the basin during 2019-2021. These changes were manifested as a sharp increase in ammonium concentrations and phosphate growth since 2020-2021, an abnormal decrease in dissolved oxygen concentration in 2019, a decrease in BOD within Yalpuh to the Danube BOD level, and a shift in trends from decreasing to increasing for nitrites. The water quality class also changed. Currently, the Danube River water is of the third quality class for nitrates, phosphates, and ammonium. In the Yalpuh Reservoir, it is of the 2nd class for nitrogen compounds and the 3rd class for phosphates. Two principal groups of chemical components are identified based on their underlying causes and sources, as revealed by correlation and factor analysis. A consistent relationship is observed between ammonium and phosphates across all monitoring sites, suggesting their role as pollutants entering surface waters via wastewater discharge and agricultural runoff and representing the main anthropogenic impact factor. The Danube River displays a specific relationship between nitrates and dissolved oxygen, reflecting the seasonal fluctuations in their concentrations and their underlying causes of changes, which stem from both anthropogenic and natural processes.

Morphometric characteristics of spiny-cheek crayfish Faxonius limosus (Rafinesque, 1817) from the Danube River on the territory of Serbia

Twenty-three morphometric characteristics of spiny-cheek crayfish Faxonus limosus from Danube, Serbia, were analyzed to describe the general body shape. Forty-eight specimens were caught in May 2022 and January 2023 and measured for morphometric variation. Also, the values of two crayfish condition indices, Fulton?s condition factor (FCF) and crayfish constant (CC), were determined. Most of the analyzed characteristics were moderately variable (CV 10-30%). Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to the morphological measurements. All the variables make similar contributions to the variance of the first principal component. The highest contributions are from variables CEF and ARL. ARW, CPH, ABH, CPW, and ROW significantly contributed to the second principal component variance. The population of spiny-cheek crayfish at the investigated site has a relatively stable age structure.

Analysis of dynamic features on local fatigue cracks in steel bridges

In steel bridges with orthotropic decks, a common and important engineering structure, fatigue cracks can appear under long-term operation. Existing artificial detection is the main approach to detecting fatigue cracks in steel bridges, in addition to some non-destructive testing or image processing methods, and unmanned aerial vehicle are applied to improve accuracy and efficiency. However, the detection of fatigue cracks in steel bridges based on the variation of dynamic responses or dynamic parameters is another attractive idea, which is still rarely mentioned and investigated in the international literature. The reason is that local cracks usually have negligible effect on the global dynamic characteristics of steel bridges, resulting in the insensitivity to dynamic indexes to fatigue cracks. On this occasion, this study numerically explores and establishes two sensitive damage features to local damage, i.e., the crack in the vertical rib, based on the fatigue cracks found on the Türr Istvan bridge over the Danube River in Hungary. The local vibrations of the bridge are excited through the local impact on the structural details, i.e., the vertical rib, and then the high-order frequencies of the entire bridge are examined. The obtained high-order frequencies are proved to be more sensitive to the fatigue cracks on vertical ribs and increased with the crack depths. On the other hand, the correlation of the stress curves on opposite sides of the crack is sensitive to the depth of the crack. If fatigue cracks are found, the development degree of the fatigue cracks can be monitored more accurately by focusing on the correlation of local stresses near the crack. These two damage features are numerically proven to have feasibility and are expected to break through the insensitivity of the existing dynamic detection methods.

Heavy mineral catalogue for the characterization and provenance of red sandstone macrolithic tools from Hódmezővásárhely-Gorzsa

Although ground stone tools (GSTs) are among the most abundant stone tools in archaeological sites, they are rarely investigated both from the archaeological and the geological point of view. There are many pieces made of siliciclastic sedimentary raw material. Their fragmentary condition makes it possible to examine them by slightly destructive methods, such HMA (heavy mineral analysis), which was developed primarily for siliciclastic rocks. Until now, ‘sensu stricto’ (s.str) heavy mineral analysis has not yet been carried out for ground stone tools, neither at the national nor at the international level. By comparing the heavy mineral compositions of the stone tools and their potential raw materials with the help of a newly developed HM descriptive system (including rutile, zircon, tourmaline, apatite and titanite), it is possible to determine the provenance of these archaeological materials. From the Neolithic tell of Gorzsa, 109 red sandstone macrolithic stone tools are known. These were separated into four, different types (‘Red–1’ – ‘Red–4’), based on the macroscopic and microscopic analysis. 11 fragments were chosen for HMA analysis. In addition, red-coloured sandstones from different geological occurrences of the Carpathian-Pannonian Basin (22 pieces) were also investigated. Based on the heavy mineral analysis, all raw material types of the stone tools could be originated from the Maros River and the Apuseni Mountains (Transylvania). However, the previously determined potential sources (Permotriassic and Miocene sequences from the Mecsek Mountains, Balaton Highlands, pebbles from the Danube River, and Papuk Mountains) cannot be excluded with absolute certainty from the possible raw materials.

Water quality evaluation of the Danube River basin in Bačka (northern Serbia) using multivariate statistical techniques

The study aimed to analyze changes in water quality based on ten physicochemical parameters for the Danube River in Bačka. Data from three profiles over a twenty-year interval were used and processed using multivariate statistics. An ANOVA indicated that the quality of surface water is mostly at a satisfactory level. Sufficient amounts of dissolved oxygen indicate a favorable aeration regime. The surpassing of the annual and monthly values of suspended solids was recorded for all profiles (especially in summer). The summary results show that most parameters, except for suspended solids, are within the allowed values for water quality Class II. A Pearson’s correlation test indicates a moderate to weak correlation of the analyzed parameters. A PCA analysis determined the influence of (a) eutrophication processes; (b) ecological factors; and (c) concentrated sources of pollution. Changes in the Danube’s water quality, primarily increased concentrations of suspended solids, can exert a limiting influence on some economic activities and their planning.

Danube anadromous sturgeons male to female ratio research in the context of solutions development that address the discontinuity of their historical migration routes due to hydrotechnical constructions

Historical migration routes for anadromous sturgeons in the Danube River have been interrupted by transversal structures for hydropower use, from which the Iron Gates hydropower system represents the first significant barrier upstream Danube from the Black Sea. For the implementation of DALIA project, funded by Horizon Europe, the National Institute for Research and Development in Environmental Protection Bucharest (INCDPM) carries out research and innovation activities that aim to provide a sustainable solution for ultrasonic tagged sturgeons to by-pass upstream and downstream the hydropower dams. The spatial and temporal parameters recorded during April 2024 for the behavior of 7 male and 2 female ultrasonic tagged sturgeon specimens was analyzed and incorporated in a decisional matrix that provided the value 4 to 1 for the male to female ratio. This result is taken into account in the design for the by-pass solutions to be implemented for the dams that will provide the restoration of the historical multisecular migration route for ultrasonic tagged sturgeon species.

Valorizacija ljušture invazivnih rakova iz reke Dunav (Faxonius limosus) - ekstrakcija i karakterizacija proteina

In order to deal with invasive crayfish (Faxonius limosus) impact on the native crayfish, as well as fish biodiversity in the Danube River, a possible solution would be to find and adopt mechanisms for its utilization for novel valuable product production. Apart from utilizing edible parts for novel food products, the shell waste can also be considered a source of valuable compounds. The complex structure of the shell mainly consists of three basic compounds: chitin, protein and minerals-mainly calcium carbonate. In this study, shell waste proteins were extracted using three extraction methods. The first method involved using naturally present enzymes (proteases and lipases) in crayfish wastes to recover proteins through an autolysis process. To accelerate the process, UV radiation was used. The remaining two extraction methods were alkaline extraction of proteins, wherein one method alkaline extraction was applied directly to the shell waste, and the other method, alkaline extraction followed an acidic demineralization step of the shell waste. The obtained protein concentrates were analysed for yield, crude protein content, DPPH radical scavenging ability, amino acid content, and structure. The results have shown that a similar percentage of protein content was obtained by all three methods: 67.20-68.03 %, but the extraction yield was considerably different. Alkaline deproteinization with or without the step of demineralization resulted in a 9.20-10.98 % yield, while UV radiation accelerated autolysis resulted in only a 3.41 % yield. Although protein extraction without using exogenous enzymes or chemicals is a very interesting approach, a drawback of this approach is the low process yield. FTIR spectroscopy revealed a secondary structure that was similar in all three concentrates, according to peak deconvolution, with the autolytic concentrate differing to a lesser extent, showing a slightly higher share of b-sheet structures. The DPPH assay revealed high antioxidant activity of the concentrates (72.00-88.06 %), probably originating from active peptides derived from proteins and residual carotenoids, mainly astaxanthin.

ПРОБЛЕМИ ТА НАПРЯМКИ ВДОСКОНАЛЕННЯ ЛОГІСТИКИ ОЛІЙНИХ КУЛЬТУР УКРАЇНИ НА СУЧАСНОМУ ЕТАПІ

Since the middle of 2020, global prices for oilseeds and grain crops have started to rise as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.Russia's unprovoked and unjustified aggression against Ukraine increased prices even more.Due to the war, Ukraine, one of the leading exporters of agricultural products, experienced exports significant decrease, by almost 30 %.At the current stage, the production and export of oil crops is not only the basis for the development of the economy of Ukraine, but also ensures and maintains global food security at an appropriate level. Provided that a full-scale russian invasion continues beyond 2024, the global food crisis will worsen, challenging many countries, especially those that rely on food imports, namely the Middle East and North Africa.Coupled with rising energy costs, developing countries have been pushed to the brink of debt default more and more people are on the brink of starvation.On July 22, 2022, the United Nations, Turkey and Ukraine agreed on the Black Sea Grain Initiative.The agreement allowed the resumption of exports from Ukraine of grain, other food products and fertilizers through a safe maritime humanitarian corridor from three key Ukrainian ports: Chornomorsk, Odesa and Pivdennyi, to the rest of the world.The aim of the paper is to study the problems of the oil crops’ logistics in Ukraine at the current stage and to determine the main directions for its improvement. The paper deals with the dynamics of sunflower production and productivity in Ukraine, analyzes the current state and dynamics of the export of oil crops.Special attention was paid to the import dependence of some countries of the world on Ukrainian oil.The impact of the Black Sea Grain Initiative on global oilseed export logistics is determined. Directions for improving the logistics of oilseed crops in Ukraine through the reorientation of the main export routes to the river ports of the Danube are proposed.Measures have been determined to increase cargo transshipment capacity and increase the draft of ships on certain sections of the Danube route, which will enable Ukrainian exporters of oilseeds to work with a sufficient level of profit.Keywords: export logistics, export of oil crops, Black Sea grain initiative, Danube river ports.

Virus production in shallow groundwater at the bank of the Danube River.

Viruses play a crucial role in regulating prokaryotic populations, yet their impact on subsurface environments, specifically groundwater habitats, remains poorly understood. In this study, we employed the virus-dilution approach to measure lytic virus production rates in shallow groundwater located near the city of Vienna (Austria) during the period from July-November 2020. Physico-chemical parameters (pH, electrical conductivity, water temperature, concentration of dissolved oxygen), prokaryotic, and viral abundance, and viral decay rates were monitored as well. Our findings revealed low virus-to-prokaryote ratios varying between 0.9-3.9 throughout the study period and a lack of correlation between prokaryotic and viral abundance in groundwater. Virus production rates varied between 9-12% of viral abundance h-1 in July-August and between 34-36% of viral abundance h-1 in October-November. Seasonal variations in virus production rates were found to be correlated with electrical conductivity, revealing ~3.5 times higher virus production rates during periods with high electrical conductivity and low groundwater recharge in October-November compared to July-August with higher groundwater recharge and lower electrical conductivity. Our data indicate that groundwater recharge disrupts the balance between virus and prokaryotic host communities, resulting in a deficiency of suitable prokaryotic host cells for viral proliferation.

Assessment of the water quality of the Danube river for economic and drinking water use

Assessment of the water quality of the Danube river for economic and drinking water use

Lower Palaeolithic in Korolevo I (Transcarpathia, Ukraine, East-Central Europe): the earliest in Europe?

A recently published article in “Nature” (Garba et al., 2024) claims that lithic finds in the lowermost artefact-bearing sediments of lithological unit 26 at the Korolevo I site (Transcarpathia, Ukraine) are the oldest in Europe, dated to ca. 1.42 Ma with cosmogenic nuclides of gravel pebbles. These surprisingly old dates were then used to build hypotheses on the geochronology and routes of the initial Homo erectus colonization of Europe from the east. The present author reviews all published and unpublished Lower Palaeolithic (LP) data of the Korolevo I site, the field investigations of which he also participated in the 1980s, and came to the following negative results. The dated pebbles in Korolevo I unit 26 are of “intrusive” character, they do not date unit 26 and its lithic finds. Also, the proposed Early Pleistocene interglacial MIS 47, 45 and 43 periods for the LP colonization of Europe either via Asia Minor and the Danube River valley or the Caucasus and the southern part of Eastern Europe do not correspond to the known palaeogeographic and archaeological data from Western Eurasia. Besides, our review of LP contexts in Korolevo I suggests that the so-called lowermost LP lithic artefacts found in situ in archaeological horizon VII within lithological unit 26 in Korolevo I in 1984-1986 are distributed randomly horizontally and vertically. Moreover, they are mostly unworked hyalodacite and siliceous sandstone pieces together with several artefacts redeposited from the sediments above. Accordingly, the only certainly LP material in Korolevo I we know so far is situated in archaeological horizon VI, which is geochronologically associated with the Middle Pleistocene inter-Mindel period or MIS 14, dated to ca. 550 ka BP. However, the Korolevo I site still appears to represent the oldest LP human occupation in both Eastern Central Europe and Ukraine.