Ritual Purposes Research Articles

The Meaning of Zhousong: The Zhous Propaganda and Tradition

Abstract: Zhousong (, the Hymns of the Zhou) is an important part of Shijing, with 31 poems in the compilation, and these poems were played in the Zhous ancestral temple for ritual purposes. The character Song () has a structure that can be interpreted as a man praising with a gesture of respect, so it has acquired the meaning of countenance. Thats why Zhousong means the countenance of the Zhou. The kings of the Zhou used Zhousong as propaganda that magnified the virtue of themselves, for they claimed to receive mandate from High Heaven because of their virtues. That propaganda not only played an important role in the Zhous rule, but also gradually became a tradition in Chinese culture after the Zhou Dynasty with the transmission and re-interpretations of Zhousong. Thus, Zhousong, which can be regarded as a part of Cultural Memory of China, has left a profound impact on Chinese civilization. How people interpret Zhousong and the historical studies of Zhousong today is related to the understanding of Chinese civilization.

Food and Environment During the Late Roman Age at the Site of Alba Fucens (Abruzzi, Italy)

Archaeobotanical analyses in Italy are uneven in terms of geographical and chronological distribution. Amongst the different regions, Abruzzi is poorly represented, with only one study covering the Roman Age. In this framework, the analyses carried out on carpological remains collected from the Late Roman (late 5th–early 6th century AD) filling of a well in the Sanctuary of Hercules in Alba Fucens represents an important addition to the state of the art. The plant assemblage consists of over 1500 remains attributed to 68 different taxa. These are partly represented by gathered fruit plants, such as Corylus avellana, Juglans regia and Sambucus nigra, while cereals and pulses are missing. An interesting aspect is represented by evergreen plants (Pinus pinea and Cupressus sempervirens) that are likely to have been used for ritual purposes rather than for human consumption. Finally, the impressive amount of ruderal and spontaneous plants represents a unicum for this type of study, allowing us to describe the past environment surrounding Alba Fucens, characterized by substantial water availability, Apennine grasslands and influenced by human presence.

Ritual Child Homicide in Contemporary Africa: A Systematic Review of the Empirical Literature

Ritual child homicide, the killing of children for ritual or occult purposes, is a phenomenon that occurs in many African countries. Prior to the 21st century, very little, if any, criminological analysis of ritual paedicide in African settings existed. However, research on ritual child homicide has increased in recent years, leading to greater knowledge and understanding of the phenomenon. The present study sought to consolidate and synthesize information on ritual child homicide in African communities to facilitate a better appreciation of the phenomenon. Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines, a comprehensive search for empirical studies on ritual paedicide in African settings, spanning the years 2000 to 2022, was conducted across four databases: Scopus, Web of Science, Journal Storage, and Google Scholar. A total of 14 studies met the eligibility criteria and were diligently appraised. The review shows that most ritual paedicide victims are from families of low socioeconomic backgrounds in rural communities. A ritual paedicide typically involves multiple culprits. The actual perpetrators (i.e., body hunters or murderers) are predominantly males of low socioeconomic status, motivated largely by monetary gain. To combat the phenomenon, economic improvement, the promotion of formal and public education, formal regulation of the activities of traditional healers/spiritualists, and the strengthening of the criminal justice system are recommended.

Healing and Hallucinations: A Comprehensive Look at Datura

The Solanaceae plant family is a large clade that includes Datura, a genus of plants with many species recognized for their severe pharmacological effects via tropane alkaloids like atropine, hyoscyamine and scopolamine. These alkaloids act as antagonists of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors with leading to a truly diverse pharmacological action, ranging from anticholinergic effects all the way through hallucinogenic properties. Datura plants have been used historically in traditional medicine and rituals worldwide but are infamous for poisoning due to the risk of severe anticholinergic toxicity, including death. Nevertheless, their pharmacology has become of interest for research due to potential therapeutic applications: specifically in controlling nauseousness and perhaps neurological disorders. In this review, we provide a summary of the botanical description and cultivation methods in addition to those on traditional use practices concerning phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology as compared with evidence-based information together emphasizing cautions against availability without stringent regulatory consideration for its modern medical uses or ritualistic purposes.

Ritual Child Homicides in Ghana and Kenya: A Criminological Analysis

Child homicide is a frequent occurrence in many African communities, and juju beliefs trigger a sizable proportion of this crime. Yet a systematic and critical analysis of juju’s impact on pedicides is lacking in the literature. The sparse extant studies on juju-driven homicide or ritual murder mainly offer historical perspectives rather than criminological analysis of the phenomenon. The present study explores the magnitude, characteristics, and motivations, as well as the socio-cultural and economic contexts of ritual child homicide or juju-driven pedicide (i.e., the killing of children for ritual or occult purposes) in Ghana and Kenya. This aim is achieved by conducting an in-depth analysis of ritual murder reports publicized on the websites of eight major news/media outlets between 2012 and 2021. The content analysis results are complemented by semi-structured interviews involving 28 academics and experts. The data show that ritual child homicide usually involves multiple offenders, primarily unemployed young adult males aged between 20 and 39 years. Most perpetrators are motivated by pecuniary gain and the desire to protect themselves against perceived spiritual attacks. The body parts primarily extracted from victims for rituals are the head, limbs, private parts, and blood. The major factors contributing to the persistence of ritual pedicides are obsession with juju, economic hardship, illiteracy, inefficient criminal justice system, authorities’ failure to bring juju practitioners under closer scrutiny, and the emergence of a new consumerist ethos—the unrestrained quest for luxurious effects.

동심원 암각화의 제작 시기 및 상징성 고찰 - 영남 내륙 지역을 중심으로

The objective of this study is to determine the age of concentric circle petroglyphs and to elucidate the character of the sites and the symbolism of the motifs within their historical context. The determination of the age is a central yet challenging aspect of petroglyph research, given their exposure to external elements. This is true even for those found in burial sites, where various factors can influence the dating. However, the discovery of cup marks and concentric circle motifs on the cover stone of Songguk-ri No.1 stone cist tomb in Buyeo, which was investigated without exposure, provided a basis for examining the age by extracting common elements across regions. Consequently, it was determined that the concentric circle petroglyphs were engraved during the middle to late Bronze Age. The ages were delineated to estimate the diffusion routes. The middle to late Bronze Age, characterized by advanced agricultural practices, witnessed significant social changes and the emergence of social stratification. In this context, burial sites with engraved petroglyphs are understood to be spaces that went beyond simple funerary rites to include ancestor veneration and other ritualistic purposes. Additionally, the presence of petroglyphs on vertical rock faces near watersides suggests these sites were multifunctional ceremonial spaces, likely used for rituals promoting prosperity and other communal activities. Thus, sites with concentric circle petroglyphs are understood to be ceremonial spaces, and the motifs themselves are interpreted within this context. While the symbolism of these motifs is widely debated, with suggestions including the sun or water, their locations and the historical context suggest a stronger association with water rather than the sun.

Funerary vs. domestic vessels from the Hallstatt period. A study on ceramic vases from the Milejowice settlement and the Domasław cemetery

Clay vessels have a wide variety of functions in social activities in the Hallstatt period. In addition to food storage and processing, they were used for ritual purposes and as funerary vessels. The paper presents the results of archaeological and chromatographic studies of 31 vases from two different Hallstatt culture sites in lower Silesia (Poland). The investigations included vessels fragments from the Domasław cemetery and from the Milejowice settlement. The chromatographic analyses focused on fatty acids and biomarkers and made it possible to identify the most likely sources of substances they came into contact with during use. The c-means and hierarchical cluster analyses showed that grave vessels differed from settlement ceramics. Thus, conclusions on the diverse vessel functions could be made.

Sacred Space and Ritual Behaviour in Ancient Mesopotamia: A View from Tello/Girsu

Girsu, the modern site of Tello (southern Iraq), represents one of the earliest known urban centres of the ancient world, along with Uruk, Eridu, and Ur. During the 3rd millennium BCE (3000–2000 BCE), Girsu was revered as the sanctuary of the Sumerian heroic deity Ningirsu, who fought with supernatural beasts and made possible the introduction of irrigation and agriculture in Sumer. While much is known about the gods, their roles, and rituals inside the temples, there is little textual or archaeological evidence concerning the rituals that took place in the large open-air plazas adjacent to the temples. These areas within the sacred precinct were where the general population would gather to participate in festivals and ceremonies to honour the gods. To better understand the ancient cultic realm in southern Mesopotamia, an in-depth investigation of a favissa (ritual pit) discovered within the sacred precinct at Girsu was undertaken. The excavations recovered a large quantity of ceramics and animal remains that had been used for ritual purposes. Through the study of archaeological remains of cultic spaces at Girsu, information on ritual behaviour such as sacrificial animal slaughtering and consumption for the purpose of feasting, the types of libations provided to quench the thirst of the gods, and the distance travelled to take part in the annual festivals to pay homage to the patron god of their sacred city were explored. Analysis of the associated ceramics, cuneiform texts, and zooarchaeological remains (including stable isotope data), allowed a multi-faceted and integrative approach to better understand ceremonial behaviour and ritual feasting in this sacred city. New insights into communal and performative participation in ceremonies, especially by non-elite individuals, are generated. These data increase our knowledge not only of how Girsu’s citizens organised their sacred spaces and religious festivals, but also of how they behaved in order to satisfy the ever-demanding needs of their gods.

When mentally ill women become sexual preys in Zimbabwe: An African indigenous religio-cultural perspective

There is a phenomenal increase in the number of cases of women suffering from mental illness in our contemporary society, which is hard hit by pandemics. As scholarship reflects on this condition, there has been little attention paid to the impact of indigenous religion and cultural practices to the sexual and reproductive health of women with mental illness and indigenous entrepreneurs who seek economic fortunes in a post COVID-19 epoch. Largely, the Zimbabwean society detests mental illness and this has rendered mentally ill women to the social margins. However, cases of men from the mainstream society having illicit sexual intercourse with mentally ill women are rampant, both in urban and rural environments. So one can ask why men from the mainstream society are having sexual relations with the ostracised mentally ill women. Prioritizing ethical considerations, this qualitative study uses ritual theory as its theoretical framework, sociology of religion, phenomenology of religion and gendered cultural hermeneutics to explore the prevalence of these sexual practices. Data was gathered through interviews and desk research from January to December 2023. Findings of the study were that these sexual activities are ritualistic, done to enhance success in politics, business, farming and self-initiated churches. An analysis of the reasons behind the performance of these sex rituals showed that a mentally ill woman’s body is an entity which belongs to the spiritual world so the sexual relationship makes it possible for the male entrepreneur to access the spiritual world. Through these rituals, men with entrepreneurial wishes will be attempting to connect with and manipulate the spiritual world. The study concluded that mentally ill women have less choice over their sexual and reproductive lives. They are sexually exploited, yet they lack the capacity to disclose these heinous acts to the mainstream society. They are regarded by the patriarchal society as sexual preys where coercive sex and or rape are used for ritual purposes, with the intent of attaining socio-economic transformation.

FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION: A THREAT TO FEMALE SPORTS PARTICIPATION IN EKITI STATE

Female Genital Mutilation is widespread among the various ethnic groups and socio-economic groups and classes and it is usually practice for cultural, religious, and ritual purposes, often as part of initiation rite into womanhood. Noting that the health of a girl-child is paramount to effective sport participation among elites. Without an optimal healthy living among female or girl-child, sports participation will be male gender focused, leading to gender inequality in sports. Hence, the researcher seek to examine female genital mutilation as impediment to sports participation amongst girl-child in Ekiti State. Descriptive survey research design was adopted for this study and two hundred (200) respondents were selected using multi-staged sampling techniques. A self-constructed questionnaire was developed by the researcher to collect data for the study. The instrument was validated by experts and a reliability coefficient of 0.86 was obtained using split half method of reliability. All data collected was analysed using inferential statistics of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Regression to test the hypotheses set for the study at 0.05 level of significance. From the results of the study, that female Genital Mutilation had significant impact on health of a girl-child/women in the society and thereby affecting female sport participation in Ekiti State. Majorly, psychological trauma and health implications of FGM tends to have significant impact on sport participation of females in sport. The researcher therefore recommended that planned health education campaigns are mandatory to elude the drawbacks of female genital mutilation and hazards of continuation of the practice so as to promote the healthy living of female in order to facilitate their participation in sport as well as maintain a balance of gender equality in sport.

Barrow Necropolis from the 3rd and 2nd Millennia BC in Western Ukraine. A Bayesian Modeling and Isotopic Study

AbstractThis article discusses the absolute chronology of burials from the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC discovered under the mounds of three barrows in the Kordyshiv cemetery in western Ukraine. Its aim is to create a chronological model of the burials by modeling 27 AMS 14C dates obtained from 21 individuals buried in single and collective graves. Dietary analysis of stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope values are presented. The Bayesian modeling of the 14C dates from the three Kordyshiv barrows revealed the extremely important role of these monuments as long-term objects used for ritual purposes. At the end of the 3rd millennium BC, the epi-Corded Ware Culture (epi-CWC) community erected a mound over the central burial in Barrow 2, then interred the graves of three additional deceased. After several hundred years Barrow 2 was reused by Komarów Culture (KC) communities from the Middle Bronze Age (MBA) who interred their deceased in the existing mound. The oldest monument with MBA burials was Barrow 3, in which the dead were buried in a two-stage sequence before and after the mid-2nd millennium BC. The youngest dated grave was Burial 1 in Barrow 1, comprising a collective burial that was interred between 1400 and 1200 BC. The additional analyses of carbon and nitrogen isotopes show significant differences in the diet of epi-CWC individuals buried in Barrow 2 from the individuals representing the KC.

Impact of Street Hawking on Children's Academic Wellbeing: A Critical Assessment

Child street hawking is emerging as a significant public health concern in developing countries like Nigeria, primarily driven by poverty and resulting in the continuous migration of people to urban areas in search of livelihood. Despite existing legislation addressing child labor in Nigeria, the prevalence of street hawking persists due to inadequate implementation and enforcement. Moreover, traditional beliefs regarding children as contributors to the family's socioeconomic well-being further perpetuate this practice in African societies. Familyrelated factors also contribute to the involvement of children in street hawking. However, child hawkers face numerous hazards, including physical violence, loss of merchandise, accidents, robbery, kidnapping, and even murder for ritualistic purposes. They are also vulnerable to extreme weather conditions, insect and reptile bites, hunger, and deprivation. Of great concern is the risk of sexual exploitation and forced prostitution, leading to unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections. This paper examines the impact of street hawking on children's academic well-being and emphasizes the fundamental right of all children to receive basic education and quality learning opportunities. It underscores the need for legislation prohibiting street hawking by children, with legal repercussions for both parents and children involved in the practice. Prioritizing education and safeguarding children from the dangers of street hawking is essential for their holistic development and future societal contributions. Keywords: Street Hawking, Child Labor, Academic Wellbeing, Legislation, Child Rights

Scanning the new frontier of mental health: psychedelic brain imaging

The use of psychoactive substances for ritual, spiritual and medicinal purposes stretches back into prehistory and has been a common feature of many diverse cultures and societies globally. Psychedelics, with their unique ability to amplify feelings of connectedness and openness, may have also served as tools for promoting tribal cohesion and trust in ancient cultures. Psychedelic is a broad term derived from the Greek words ‘psyche’, meaning soul or mind, and ‘deloun’, which means to manifest. Classic psychedelics, such as psilocybin (the active ingredient in magic mushrooms), act directly on the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor, while atypical psychedelics, such as MDMA and ketamine, have different pharmacological modes of action and tend to have less of a hallucinogenic effect. They all produce (as the origin of their name suggests) a profound shift in consciousness, generally positive emotional states and feelings of connectedness and openness. Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is in many ways the prototypical psychedelic and began the first wave of psychedelic research in western medicine after it was first synthesized in the early 1940s. By the 1960s, thousands of patients had received LSD therapy in the USA, the UK, Czech Republic and elsewhere for depression, anxiety, addiction and a number of other disorders. This period concurrently saw the development of other key psychiatric drugs such as monoamine oxidase inhibitors as antidepressants and dopamine antagonist drugs as antipsychotics. This revolution in psychiatric treatment ushered in a wave of research and entirely new perspectives on the biological mechanisms underpinning psychiatric disorders.

Headhunting and warfare in Austronesia: A phylogenetic comparative analysis

Headhunting – the practice of acquiring human heads for ritual purposes – was historically widespread around the world. We hypothesize that headhunting represented a cultural response to frequent inter-tribal warfare and served as a mechanism to train warriors ready to defend their community. The practice was effective since, first, it allowed verification of warrior quality based on performance in headhunting raids and, second, it offered a system of rewards for men to develop and refine warfare skills. We use phylogenetic comparative methods and ethnographic data to empirically investigate this hypothesis in a sample of preindustrial Austronesian societies. Headhunting turns out to be substantially more prevalent in societies exposed to frequent warfare, accounting for shared cultural ancestry and a host of potentially confounding characteristics. Furthermore, Bayesian estimation of correlated evolution models suggests that, consistent with our hypothesis, the adoption of headhunting typically followed increases in warfare frequency and the decline of this practice was preceded by reduced intergroup conflict.

A Public Theological Reflection on Biblical Antecedents of Protocols for Managing Pandemics

Abstract This article is a public theological discourse, arguing that the protocols, such as handwashing, social distancing, and face-covering, used to halt the spread of COVID-19, have biblical antecedents. Some observers contend that church leaders failed to inspire biblical hope, faith and courage when they focused on promoting the preventive protocols. It can be argued that promoting these protocols was a means of promoting biblical hope, faith, and courage in the face of the pandemic. In the Hebrew Bible, priests were commanded to wash their hands and feet before going into the tent of meeting. Isolation or quarantine was imposed on anyone with a suspected skin disease until examinations confirmed the disease or otherwise. Though these protocols were mostly for religious ceremonial and ritualistic purposes, they might have helped to halt the spread of infectious diseases. The article thus provides an exegesis of Exodus 30:17–21 and Leviticus 13:1–8, 45–46.

TRADITIONAL FOLK KNOWLEDGE OF THE KAZAKHS ASSOCIATED WITH THE CULT OF THE WOLF

The wolf is a predator that has a symbolic meaning in almost all Turkic peoples. Early Turkic people used the ephemeral name “bori” for wolves. Almost all Turkic peoples consider themselves as descendants of Kokbori. However, different Turkic peoples have various features in the concept of “wolf”. The system of knowledge and skills related to wolves for Kazakh people is associated with the recognition of the secrets of nature and animals from ancient times. There was formed ethno-folklore system (legends, fairy tales, proverbs) related to the cognition of man and wolf, as well as a system of names according to the types of wolves, age and color. The ephemeral name “Bori” used by the ancient Turks and the cult of bori had not lost their meaning from ancient times to the present day. Rock carvings and archeological finds determine the importance of the image of the wolf in the life and worldview of the ancient tribes inhabiting the Kazakh land. The skin was tanned and hung at home. The wolf coat (winter coat) and wolf cap (winter cap) were sewn from its skin. Heart, larynx, meat, fat, wolf soup, bile, genitals had been used in ethnomedicine for the traditional treatment of various diseases. The body parts such as skull, cheeks, teeth, haste, soles, skin were used for magical and ritual purposes. The traditional method of hunting wolves in the hunting industry was to set traps. The system of proverbs associated with the wolf reflects the peculiarities of the Kazakhs' knowledge of wolves. Field research works related to wolves were carried out in the regıon Syrdarya-Aral, the western part of the Kazakhstan, Ulytau.

The Written Sources of the Goryeo Period about Incense and Buddhist Olfactory Practices on the Korean Peninsula

Having originated in ancient China during the Neolithic era, the tradition of using aromatic substances spread to other countries of the Sino-hieroglyphic area. On the Korean Peninsula, under the influence of internal features based on the Chinese version of aromatic culture and the Buddhist religious component, even a special type of maehyang ritual rite was formed, which consisted of burying a piece of wood in the ground in the presence of representatives of the Buddhist community on some important occasion. In this case, it was necessary to record in writing form the fact of burial on a stele, which was installed in memorial of such an event at the burial site of the wood, or on a stone located near the site of the ritual. A whole range of Korean written sources contains information about the use of incense for ritual and medical purposes. To identify the specific features of olfactory practices in the early Korean Middle Ages, this article will analyze “Historical Records of the Three States” (三國史記 Samguk sagi, 1145); “Lives of Eminent Korean Monks” (海東高僧傳 Haedong Goseunjeon, early 13th century) and “The remaining information [about] the three states” (三國遺事 Samguk yusa, late 13th century). An analysis of written sources, the use of folklore and mythological materials make it possible to reveal characteristics of olfactory practices in the context of the development of Buddhism on the territory of the Korean Peninsula. All these sources demonstrate many facts related to the use of incense at the court of the Korean king, in monasteries and temples for ritual and hygienic purposes. Analysis of sources not only allows us to trace the history of the spread of Buddhism across the Korean Peninsula and identify the peculiarities of interaction between cultures of the East Asian region in the chronological period under consideration (1–10th centuries), but also provides rich material about the flora of Korea, Korean ideas about plants and herbs, and as well as methods of their use.

Multiproxy analysis of Upper Palaeolithic lustrous gravels supports their anthropogenic use.

Upper Palaeolithic sites in southwestern France attributed to the Upper Gravettian and the Solutrean yielded sub spherical gravels with a highly shiny appearance that have intrigued researchers since the 1930s. In this work, we analyze specimens from five sites, including the recently excavated Solutrean site of Landry, to establish whether their presence in archaeological layers and peculiar aspect are due to natural processes or human agency. We study the spatial distribution of gravels at Landry and submit archaeological gravels from the five sites, natural formations, Landry sediment sieving, and polishing experiments with a rotary tumbling machine to morphometric, colorimetric, microscopic, and textural analyses. Our results indicate the lustrous gravels found at the five sites result from deliberate selection and suggest their shiny appearance is the consequence of human agency, possibly resulting from prolonged contact with a soft material such as animal skin. Ethnographic accounts indicate that these gravels may have been used for magico-religious ritual purposes (charms, sorcery, divination etc.), in games, as elements of musical instruments, and as items serving other social and personal purposes. We argue that these objects reflect a cultural innovation emerged during the Gravettian and continued into the Solutrean.

Local knowledge-based conservation partnerships in the Tengger tribe community in Poncokusumo and Senduro East Java Province, Indonesia

The Tengger tribe community has local knowledge of using forest products, especially non-timber ones. The use of non-timber forest products from the Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park (TNBTS) area has various uses, including food, medicine, and traditional rituals. The local knowledge of the Tengger tribe community in the use of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) can be used as a reference in determining the types of non-timber forest products that can be developed in conservation partnership programs in the context of community empowerment. This research aims to analyze the types of non-timber forest products that can be implemented in conservation partnership programs in the context of community empowerment. The research was conducted in July – September 2023, in 3 (three) villages located in 2 (two) districts, namely Ngadas village (Enclave), Poncokusumo District, Malang Regency, as well as Ranupani (Enclave) and Argosari villages (TNBTS buffer villages), Senduro District, Lumajang Regency.. The method used is descriptive qualitative, with data collection techniques, namely semi-structured interviews, documentation studies, and observations. Data analysis in this research uses Miles and Huberman analysis. The technique used to select informants was purposive sampling. Snowball sampling was used to select informants. To find out the types of non-timber forest products that are utilized and can be implemented in conservation partnerships based on local knowledge of the Tengger tribe community, informants were used, namely traditional community leaders and ordinary people in the villages of Ngadas about 10 people, Ranupani about 10 people and Argosari about 15 people. Based on the research results, information was obtained that the types of non-timber forest products that are utilized and can be implemented in conservation partnerships are based on local knowledge of the Tengger tribe community. They consisted of the families Asteraceae (3 species), Fabaceae (1 species), Schizophyllum (1 species), Auriculariaceae (1 species), Apiaceae (2 species), Apocynaceae (1 species), Melastomataceae (1 species), Acoraceae (1 species), Lauraceae (1 species) and Fabaceae (1 species), with various uses, including for food, medicine and for traditional ritual purposes.

Mind-altering Cycads? Preliminary Evidence of Psychoactive Effects in Cycadales

This article examines historical and contemporary evidence for the importance of cycads as sources of psychoactive experiences for ritual and recreational purposes. Methods used include critical analysis and comparison of published and gray literature as well as ethnographic accounts gathered by the author in Mexico and South Africa. The consumption of cycad parts (pollen, coralloid root, and caudex) to derive an intentional psychoactive effect as a drug may implicate the neurotoxic amino acid BMAA, while fermentation and distillation of cycad starch result in intoxication from alcohol. Cycad ingestion is related to medicinal uses, magico-religious practice, and sexual stimulation as an aphrodisiac. Interconnections between these functions, the ceremonial importance of cycads, and conservation implications are discussed. Conclusions include the need to better understand effects on users and on cycad populations, and the potential pitfalls and opportunities psychoactive uses present for community-based conservation.