Risk-Need-Responsivity Research Articles

Sexual Assault and its Effects on Male Prisoners’ Rehabilitation: A Case of Kamiti Medium Prison, Kiambu County- Kenya

Purpose: This article examines the effects of sexual assault on male prisoners’ rehabilitation in Kamiti Medium Prison. It highlights underlying effects of sexual assault that negatively interfere with rehabilitation of male prisoners by exploring prevalence of sexual assault, effectiveness of the Kenya Prisons Rehabilitation Program on sexual assault survivors and perpetrators and the coping mechanisms employed by survivors of sexual assault in Kamiti Medium Prison.
 Methodology: The study employed descriptive survey research design guided by Travis Hirschi’s social control theory and the risk-need-responsivity (RNR) model to interrogated sexual assault, a prison gender dynamic of power and control, and its underlying effects on male prisoners’ rehabilitation. Key informant interview schedules and semi-structured questionnaires were used to gather both quantitative and qualitative data from respondents identified through stratified and purposive sampling. Quantitative and qualitative data was then coded and analyzed respectively to establish the effects of sexual assault on male prisoners’ rehabilitation in Kamiti Medium Prison.
 Results: Findings indicate that sexual assault in Kamiti Medium Prison is a trivialized gender concern despite it being rampant and its effects adversely affecting rehabilitation processes of victims and perpetrators. Moreover, there are no socially acceptable coping structures for survivors and perpetrators of sexual assault and the available rehabilitation programmes are not need-based. This allows for negative and socially unacceptable coping mechanisms that worsen the effects of sexual assault and reinforce prisoners’ criminal mentality thereby contributing to their non-rehabilitation.
 Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: This study departs from the many others which have largely focused on prevalence, nature and general effects of sexual assault, including possible mitigations. It provides a deeper understanding on effects of sexual assault and its impact on male prisoners’ capacity to be rehabilitated, an under researched field. Findings add knowledge to the existing literature and will benefit policy makers in the criminal justice system in addressing policy gaps like absence of a correctional policy and review of the Prison Act to synchronize with the Sexual Offences Act. Lastly, findings also form basis for future researches on the subject i.e. it recommends two studies, one, to interrogate whether those involved in prison sexual assault were imprisoned for the same crime and two, to explore the rate at which prisoners involved in prison sexual assault tend to reoffend.

A Pilot Study of the Swedish Sexual Offender Treatment Program

Purpose: The aim was to test whether dynamic criminogenic risk factors change after participation in a new cognitive-behavioral treatment program adhering to the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model, within a group of adult men convicted of a sexual offense in Sweden. Methods: Three psychometric tests from approximately 26 participants were completed. Therapists rated 46 participants using the Therapist Rating Scale-2 (TRS-2). Results: Participants reported a significant decrease in hypersexuality, small to medium effect size, a non-significant, increased, internal locus of control, but no change regarding attachment styles, posttreatment. Therapists rated significant decrease in all treatment needs posttreatment, medium to large effect size. Conclusions: The significant reduction of several criminogenic risk factors posttreatment indicates the treatment program may reduce problems related to increased risk of recidivism, especially hypersexuality. Moreover, treatment did not appear to have negative effects, motivating further implementation. However, to evaluate the effectiveness, more research is necessary.

Needing More Guidance: Adherence to Offender Needs in Case Plan Objectives

ABSTRACT The risk-need-responsivity (RNR) model has become a standard formula for developing and assessing offender treatment programs. It has also become increasingly used to guide case management practices. However, less focus has been given to the impact of adhering to these principles within the development of case plan objectives. The current study has two objectives. The first objective is to draw attention to the lack of literature examining the impacts of case plan adherence to RNR on offender outcomes. The second intention is to contribute to this field by examining the impact of case plan adherence to the need principle on recidivism among a sample of halfway house clients. Results show that higher adherence within one need domain, employment/education, was related to significantly lower recidivism. Overall, these findings indicate that adherence to the need principle in offender case plans may improve client outcomes. They also underline a need for more research on the development and impacts of case plan objectives.

Criminogenic needs and intimate partner violence: Association with recidivism and implications for treatment.

The Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) principles of effective correctional service that are well supported in the general offending literature have less often been applied to the assessment and treatment of intimate partner violence (IPV). Well validated IPV risk assessment tools are now widely available, and IPV treatment programs that match treatment intensity to assessed risk have shown promising pre-to-post treatment effects. The present study builds on the study of RNR principles in IPV by exploring criminogenic needs and their relation to recidivism and to recently proposed treatment intensity categories derived from an IPV risk assessment tool. We reanalyzed data from 1,421 men with a police report of IPV in the original Ontario Domestic Assault Risk Assessment (ODARA) dataset, to explore the prevalence of antisocial personality traits, procriminal attitudes, substance use, poor relationships, and work/school problems and their relation to IPV recidivism and ODARA-based treatment intensity categories. Needs were present in 17% (procriminal attitudes) to 42% (substance use) of men. All needs except poor relationships were positively related to IPV recidivism; in logistic regression analyses, antisocial personality traits (OR = 1.80) and poor relationships (OR = 0.61) incrementally predicted IPV recidivism over the ODARA (OR = 1.40). Men placed in higher treatment intensity categories based on the risk assessment score had more criminogenic treatment needs. Findings support using the ODARA to select individuals for the most intensive IPV treatment, and suggest that assessing and treating criminogenic needs may improve IPV treatment outcomes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Changes in the Risk of Sexual Reoffending: The Role and Relevance of Perceived Self-Efficacy and Adult Attachment Styles in Correctional Treatment.

According to the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model, treatment effectiveness increases when treatment addresses all three associated core principles. While researchers have focused on the risk and need principles, responsivity remains under-investigated. The theoretical foundation of the RNR model and former research indicates low perceived self-efficacy and inadequate adult attachment styles as potential responsivity factors that can impede treatment of the underlying risk factors. This study assesses firstly whether these factors predict treatment attrition, and secondly changes in the assessed risk of sexual reoffending. Participants were N = 146 men sentenced for sexual offenses in a German social-therapeutic correctional facility. Younger age, higher number of previous convictions, and higher scores on the interpersonal facet of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised are associated with a higher risk of treatment attrition. Unemployment prior to incarceration was found to be an aggravating factor, whereas substance abuse emerged as a mitigating factor, according reducing the risk of reoffending. Neither pre-treatment self-efficacy nor attachment styles revealed as responsivity factors in this study. Future studies should examine if the consideration of these factors during treatment might impact treatment outcomes.

A Perspective on the Integration of eHealth in Treatment of Offenders: Combining Technology and the Risk-Need-Responsivity Model.

While there are multiple ways in which eHealth interventions such as online modules, apps and virtual reality can improve forensic psychiatry, uptake in practice is low. To overcome this problem, better integration of eHealth in treatment is necessary. In this perspective paper, we describe how the possibilities of eHealth can be connected to the risk-need-responsivity (RNR) model. To account for the risk-principle, stand-alone eHealth interventions might be used to offer more intensive treatment to high-risk offenders. The need-principle can be addressed by connecting novel experience-based interventions such as VR and apps to stable and acute dynamic risk factors. Finally, using and combining personalized interventions is in line with the responsivity-principle. Based on research inside and outside of forensic psychiatry, we conclude that there are many possibilities for eHealth to improve treatment—not just based on RNR, but also on other models. However, there is a pressing need for more development, implementation and evaluation research.

Application of the Risk Principle in the Supervision and Treatment of Individuals Who Have Sexually Offended: Does “Oversupervision” Matter?

Individuals who sexually offend are commonly misunderstood as being high risk. According to the risk–need–responsivity (RNR) principles, treatment and supervision levels should be determined by actuarial risk for the best outcomes. To date, no studies have examined these principles with individuals on supervision for a sexual offense. This study applies the RNR principles to a sample of 133 men and women serving probated sentences for a sexual offense and mandated to specialized treatment. Results indicate low-risk individuals convicted of a sexual offense were more likely to be compliant with probation and treatment than moderate-risk individuals. An analysis of risk level and supervision overrides ( N = 75) provides support for the prediction that low-risk individuals supervised at high levels may be more likely to have compliance problems. Results suggest similar outcomes when violating the risk principle for individuals who have sexually offended to the findings among general justice-involved people.

Drug Testing Policies and Practices: Predicting Successful Outcomes among Juveniles Participating in Pretrial Diversion Programs

Drug testing is a frequent condition of juvenile justice programs, although research on the effects of drug testing juveniles – especially early system-involved youth – is scarce. The risk-needs-responsivity (RNR) model suggests drug testing would only be a beneficial intervention if substance use contributes to a youth’s criminal behavior and has a rehabilitative component. We examined drug testing policies and practices in one Midwestern state utilizing interviews with 27 diversion program managers and a statewide sample of 665 youth referred to pretrial diversion. Analysis tested whether drug testing juveniles with and without a substance use need predicted successful completion of diversion and decreased the probability of future system involvement. Results indicated that drug testing was not a significant predictor of successfully completing diversion, nor did it decrease youths’ odds of recidivating in the year after discharge from diversion. Further, those with a substance use need were significantly less likely to successfully complete diversion than those without a substance use need, indicating that diversion programs should utilize rehabilitative methods for addressing criminogenic drug or alcohol needs.

Treatment Satisfaction in a Civil Commitment Facility for Sexually Violent Persons.

Evaluating patient satisfaction in therapeutic settings is consistent with a Risk-Needs-Responsivity (RNR) model. This study provides results from a program improvement initiative in a sexually violent person (SVP) civil commitment facility that queried patients and treatment providers about their satisfaction with therapeutic processes and assessment methods. Overall, patients reported high levels of satisfaction with treatment at the facility, with the highest levels of satisfaction on items about being treated with kindness and respect and staff acting professionally. Providers rated current assessment methods such as the Penile Plethysmography (PPG) assessment, polygraph testing, and neuropsychological testing as most helpful for patients in treatment progress; however, patients rated PPG assessment and polygraph testing as the least helpful of the assessments conducted. Soliciting patient feedback periodically could be important for maintaining treatment engagement and discovering opportunities to enhance patient satisfaction to treatment in a SVP civil commitment setting.

Employing the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model and predicting successful completion in an alternative drug court program: Preliminary findings from the Orleans Parish Drug Court

Drug courts have been in operation for decades to provide treatment alternatives to individuals whose substance use and related behaviors have brought them into contact with the criminal justice system. As research on drug courts have evolved, it has been demonstrated that different types of offenders have different mental health and substance use treatment needs. One way of approaching treatment in court-mandated substance use treatment is by the application of the risk-need-responsivity (RNR) model (Andrews, Zinger et al., 1990). The Orleans Parish Drug Court expanded assessment and treatment services to determine whether the implementation of alternative substance use programming within a traditional drug court model improved outcomes. The goals of the current study were to describe the process of implementing risk and need principles, provide a description of client characteristics, examine the factors related to successful completion of drug court, and investigate completion rates across risk and need groups. Results demonstrated that risk and need groups differed on several demographic variables, levels of substance use, mental health concerns, and legal issues, suggesting assessment and triage procedures were successful. Comparisons between individuals who successfully completed drug court and those who were terminated prematurely also showed significant differences. Specifically, baseline age, education, substance use problems and frequency, and days in jail/prison were unique predictors of successful drug court completion. Finally, as predicted, individuals in the group with the lowest risk and need had the highest graduation rate, despite receiving less intensive services. Overall, creation of specialized treatment tracks within a traditional drug court program appears to be an effective strategy to target the wide range of offenders typical of drug court participants.

Risk-Need-Responsivity Meets Mental Health: Implementation Challenges in Probation Case Planning

This study examined the feasibility of and fidelity to risk/needs assessment, mental health screening, and risk-need-responsivity (RNR)-based case planning within juvenile probation in two states. The researcher-guided implementation effort included the Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument-2 (MAYSI-2), Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY), and policies to prioritize criminogenic needs while using mental health services only when warranted. Data from 53 probation officers (POs) and 553 youths indicated three of five offices had high fidelity to administration and case planning policies. The interrater reliability ( n = 85; intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC][A, 1] = .92 [Northern state] and .80 [Southern state]) and predictive validity ( n = 455; Exp[B] = 1.83) of SAVRY risk ratings were significant. There was an overreliance on mental health services; 48% of youth received these referrals when only 20% screened as having mental health needs. Barriers to fidelity to RNR practices in some offices included assessments not being conducted before disposition, lack of service availability, and limited buy-in from a few stakeholders.

Recidivism risk assessment in the context of Evidence-Based Practice

The aim of this paper is to present the effectiveness of correctional programmes, which were made in the context of what works. The usage of scientific knowledge in the field of recidivism assessment is the main postulate of the what works movement. Based on scientific evidence, the R-N-R (Risk-Need-Responsivity) programme was constructed.

Risk-need-responsivity and its application in behavioral health settings: A feasibility study of a treatment planning support tool.

The risk-need-responsivity (RNR) model suggests several key practices for justice-involved populations under correctional supervision. Behavioral health treatment planning aligned with RNR principles for offender populations with co-occurring mental health and substance use disorders (CODs) could be one method for integrating RNR into clinical care. To explore a unique approach to working with behavioral health and RNR principles, the authors implemented a mixed-methods feasibility study of the acceptability, usability, and utility of a newly developed RNR treatment planning support tool (RNR TST). The tool was implemented in a re-entry program serving adults with co-occurring mental health and opioid use disorders. Chart reviews of RNR TSTs (N=55) and a focus group (N=14 re-entry clinical staff) were conducted. Ninety-six percent of the RNR TSTs incorporated the use of a validated risk-need assessment and 70% of the RNR TSTs were semi-complete to complete. Focus group interviews highlighted behavioral health staff perspectives on the acceptability, usability, and utility of the RNR TST. This novel RNR TST has the potential to assist behavioral health providers in integrating RNR principles into treatment planning. Further development and testing are needed to determine its impact on client care and outcomes.

The Relationship Between Self-Esteem, Gender, Criminal Attitudes, and Recidivism in a Youth Justice Sample

The Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model deems criminal attitudes a high-priority criminogenic target for both genders while self-esteem is considered noncriminogenic, hence low priority. In contrast, self-esteem is afforded greater priority among gender-responsive researchers, while the construct of criminal attitudes is afforded lesser priority. We examined whether self-esteem and gender moderated the relationship between criminal attitudes and recidivism among 300 justice-involved youth (200 males, 100 females). Contrary to the hypothesis, high self-esteem (≥72.15th percentile) magnified the relationship between criminal attitudes (Pride in Delinquency Scale) and recidivism in females only; self-esteem levels evidenced no impact on the relationship between criminal attitudes and recidivism among males. Results suggest that prioritizing self-esteem as a treatment target among justice-involved female youth without simultaneously considering whether or not pride in criminal conduct is also present may inadvertently increase reoffending. Implications for exploring whether high self-esteem may in reality represent falsely inflated self-esteem are discussed.

The Role of Needs Assessment in the Effective Engagement of People with Convictions

AbstractWe argue for the potential for needs assessment and sentence planning to transcend their core justice functions and set the tone for effective engagement between probation supervisee and supervisor. We draw on lived experience – analysis of interview and observational data from probation supervisors and supervisees, collected during the testing of a new needs assessment and sentence planning tool which aims to integrate the risk, needs, responsivity (RNR) model with desistance principles. After testing the findings against established models and principles of effective engagement, counter‐intuitively, we found that: disagreement can lead to agreement and more effective engagement. Additionally, that attention should be paid to the potential for the physical case management and supervision environment to positively influence the needs assessment and sentence planning process. These and the other findings have implications for policy and practice in the United Kingdom and other jurisdictions where probation is a core criminal justice function.

Estimating a treatment effect on recidivism for correctional multiple component treatment for people in prison with an alcohol use disorder in England

BackgroundThere is an emerging literature on the impact of correctional substance abuse treatment (SAT) on reoffending for people in prison with substance misuse issues. This study estimates a pathway effect for people in prison receiving multiple component treatments for an alcohol use disorder (AUD) to reduce reoffending by applying treatment effect estimation techniques for observational studies. Treatment groups comprised pharmacological treatments, psychosocial interventions (PSIs) and interventions that incorporate Risk Need Responsivity (RNR) programming. RNR compliant treatment matches treatment dose to the risk of reoffending, targets criminogenic need and is tailored to a person’s learning style.MethodsMultiple treatment effect estimators are provided for people in prison diagnosed with an AUD in England when compared to a derived control group for: Pharmacological treatment only; RNR compliant treatment and PSIs.ResultsThe outcomes for RNR compliant treatment suggest a lower recidivism rate compared to the control group. Pharmacological only treatment results in a statistically significant higher level of reoffending relative to the control group.ConclusionsThe creation of a universal system of ‘equivalence of care’ framed within a public health context in English correctional SAT may have had an unintended consequence of diluting approaches that reduce recidivism. There is an opportunity to develop an integrated, cross-disciplinary model for correctional SAT that unites public health and RNR compliant approaches.

Intervention Response to the Trauma-Exposed, Justice-Involved Female Youth: A Narrative Review of Effectiveness in Reducing Recidivism.

This study aims to examine current research about trauma-exposed, justice-involved (TEJI) female youth, and evaluate the current literature regarding the effectiveness of gender-specific interventions aimed at reducing their recidivism. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) methodology was utilized to examine quantitative and qualitative literature, published from 2000 through March 2020, about interventions for female justice-involved youth with trauma exposure. Analysis of selected studies utilized an integrated framework based on Andrew’s Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model and Lipsey’s factors of effectiveness, which reviewed studies showing the relationship between female justice-involved youth with mental health symptomologies and trauma. The findings show that effective intervention for this population targets the youth’s negative internal mechanisms related to trauma-subsequent psychosocial problems. These studies suggest that trauma-sensitive modalities have the potential to mitigate the further risk of problematic external behaviors. All studies had limited sample sizes, low follow-up rates, and unknown long-term outcomes. Future research should explore dimensions of sustainability and achieving stability in relation to intervention setting. Selecting the proper venue and facilitator for quality implementation and stability of setting is critical in delivering effective therapies. Modifications in public expectations of juvenile justice policy and practice, from disciplinary to therapeutic approaches, is needed.

Gender-Responsive Programing in Kenya: Time is Ripe

Globally, gender responsive programing has become a concern for researchers and practitioners alike. Such programs address issues that may hinder offenders’ reentry. This study sought to determine the effectiveness of rehabilitation programs that address the psychological needs of women prisoners in Kenya. The relational theory of women’s psychological development and the Risk-Needs-Responsivity (RNR) model were used to analyze inmate programs in Kenya’s 17 women’s prisons. Purposive and simple random sampling techniques were used to select 350 participants within the prisons to ask about the programs offered. We found that there is a lack of gender responsive programming in Kenya’s women’s prison; and, the rehabilitation programs that are offered within the Kenyan prison system are not effectively addressing women offenders’ unique psychological needs which contributed to their criminal behaviors.

Evaluation of the Implementation of a Risk-Need-Responsivity Service in Community Supervision in Sweden

The effective use of the core treatment principles from the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model has the potential to reduce criminal recidivism significantly. A pilot trial of the RNR-based model Krimstics in the Swedish probation service showed increased RNR adherence but no effects on recidivism. The subsequent implementation of Krimstics involved the training and clinical support of more than 700 probation officers working with community supervision. In parallel, an implementation evaluation examining RNR adherence was undertaken, collecting and coding audio-recorded supervision sessions and case file data. Findings showed that Krimstics-trained probation officers ( N = 96) used cognitive behavioral therapy-based techniques in supervision sessions while demonstrating moderate-to-high levels of relationship building skills. However, adherence to the risk principle was lacking and key cognitive behavioral techniques showed poor quality. Although Krimstics has increased RNR adherence in a Swedish context, challenges with implementing theory into practice may obscure the assessment of the service’s effectiveness.

Understanding the Relationships between Trauma and Criminogenic Risk Using the Risk-Need-Responsivity Model

ABSTRACT Despite the high rates of trauma histories in offenders and the link between trauma and subsequent criminal behavior, the mechanisms underlying the relationship between trauma and criminogenic risk factors have not received adequate attention. Trauma-informed care is increasingly a priority in forensic organizations, although individual trauma work is rarely a focus for prison-based intervention. Research conducted with female offenders has consistently found higher rates of complex trauma histories in comparison to male offenders. Current correctional models are disproportionately informed by studies of male offenders despite findings of disparities between offending pathways based on gender and histories of complex trauma. A review of the literature regarding the relationship between trauma and offending behavior using the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model of criminogenic needs and the relationship between trauma and offending in females in comparison to males is considered. Findings have both pragmatic and theoretical significance for addressing the gap in exploring etiological mechanisms linking the RNR criminogenic risk factors to crime. Implications and recommendations for correctional policy and model development addressing trauma will be discussed.