Dyslexia is not easily observed from outward appearance alone; differences typically emerge through learning performance and certain behavioral indicators. This study introduces the Direction Game, a computer-based task that uses mouse-tracking to capture behavioral signals related to directional perception, a common challenge among children at risk for dyslexia. The prototype consists of language-independent mini-games targeting three main types of directional confusion and was piloted with 102 primary school students. Analyses showed that concentration-related variables, particularly attentional control and visuo-motor planning, may provide more informative indicators of risk than simple accuracy scores. Machine learning models demonstrated promising classification performance relative to standardized school screening protocols. Additionally, an exploratory analysis of mouse trajectories revealed five tentative interaction profiles: hesitation, impulsivity, deliberate processing, fluent performance, and disengagement. Together, these findings highlight the potential of a simple, game-based mouse-tracking tool to support accessible and preliminary dyslexia risk assessment in classroom environments.

Developmental dyslexia is associated with deficient temporal auditory processing, which may play an important role in speech perception, language development, and subsequently, learning to read. Music activities may offer a way to support temporal auditory processing and language and reading development. We utilized change-related mismatch negativities (MMNs) of the electroencephalogram (EEG) to study the detection of temporal pattern violations in tone sequences in 28-month-olds, and its associations with dyslexia risk, language skills, and music activities. We also considered possible effects of two infant music-listening interventions. The MMN had diminished amplitudes in dyslexia risk compared to control children in the left hemisphere, and left-hemisphere dominance was only seen in the controls. Larger MMNs were associated with better language skills and higher amount of parent-reported shared music activities, but not with the infant music-listening interventions. The results demonstrate, in line with our hypotheses, deficient processing of temporal patterns in tone sequences in familial dyslexia-risk children. Together with the positive association with language skills, this supports the relevance of temporal auditory processing for language and reading development. The association of MMNs with the frequency of shared music activities at home suggests that active, joint music making might benefit temporal auditory processing.

Dyslexia and dyscalculia frequently co-occur; however, population-based estimates from Spain, remain scarce. This study aims to assess the prevalence of risk for dyslexia (RDyx), risk for dyscalculia (RDC), and their comorbidity (RDyx+RDC) and to evaluate their distributions by gender and socioeconomic status. A total of 691 Spanish students in 5th–6th grade were assessed with computerized screening tasks in reading and mathematics. Risk groups were defined using a cut-off of −1 SD (16th percentile) within each domain. Prevalence was 8.5% (6.6–10.9%) for RDyx, 4.2% (2.8–6.0%) for RDC, and 2.0% (1.1–3.4%) for RDyx+RDC. Comorbidity exceeded chance expectations and was asymmetrical: 48.3% of children with RDC also presented reading difficulties, while 23.7% of children with RDyx showed concurrent math difficulties. Gender effects were significant for RDC, with girls showing higher odds than boys (OR = 3.16), whereas no significant gender effect was observed for RDyx (OR = 1.56). Socioeconomic status showed a marginal effect in RDyx, but no effects were observed for RDC or comorbidity. These results provide the first population-based prevalence estimates of RDyx, RDC, and their comorbidity in Spanish primary education and underscore the value of risk-based digital screening at the school level.

This case study describes the development and implementation of an online module designed to enhance pre-service teachers' (PSTs) knowledge about dyslexia. The module includes information, including dyslexia's history, primary characteristics, and secondary consequences, and issues related to the identification and instruction of students with risk or characteristics of dyslexia in the primary grades (kindergarten through second grade; K-2). Conceived of through a collaboration between an educator preparation program (EPP) and research center at a large, public university, the module was created in response to state dyslexia legislation requiring EPPs to better equip PSTs for serving students with risk indicators and characteristics of dyslexia in the elementary grades. Instructor and PST surveys, follow-up instructor interviews, and PST assessment data were analyzed through a feasibility lens. Although limited to a single case in a specific context, findings reveal important factors for other EPPs to consider prior to the development of similar training models that seek to improve pre-service teachers' knowledge about dyslexia.

Accurate processes to identify individual risk for dyslexia are needed to identify students who require intensive interventions and prevent text reading difficulties. The Shaywitz DyslexiaScreen (SDS) is a teacher rating tool available for use in schools and clinics to screen for dyslexia risk. In this pre-registered study, we evaluated the stability and accuracy of a prototype of the SDS administered in fall of Kindergarten, 1st, and 2nd Grades for predicting reading difficulties at the end of 1st and 2nd Grades with a sample of 683 students tracked across these grades. Paired comparisons of teacher ratings on the SDS K-2nd Grades demonstrated moderate overall stability, but stability for at-risk students was much lower and approximately two in three students changed risk category once across the 3 years. The SDS identified a high percentage of truly at-risk students (sensitivity range .63-1.0). However, the SDS yielded a high number of false positives (PPV range .17-.47). When thresholds for risk were optimized for this sample, the SDS performed comparably with other candidate screening measures. We conclude that risk screening based on current SDS norms would result in large numbers of students receiving unnecessary interventions. Additional research on the technical adequacy of the SDS, including the potential for bias, is necessary before it can be considered an evidence-based tool.

Background/Objectives: The Seeds of Literacy project has followed infants at family risk for dyslexia (FR group) and infants not at family risk (NFR group) since the age of 5 months, exploring whether infant measures of auditory sensitivity and phonological skills are related to later reading achievement. Here, we retrospectively assessed relations between infant performance on a rise time discrimination task with new pre-reading behavioural measures administered at 60 months. In addition, we re-classified dyslexia risk at 60 months and again assessed relations to rise time sensitivity. Participants were re-grouped using the pre-reading behavioural measures as either dyslexia risk at 60 months (60mDR) or no dyslexia risk (60mNDR). Methods: FR and NFR children (44 English-learning children) completed assessments of rise time discrimination at 10 and/or 60 months, phonological awareness, phonological memory, rapid automatised naming (RAN), letter knowledge, and language skills (receptive vocabulary and grammatical awareness). Results: Longitudinal analyses showed significant time-lagged correlations between rise time sensitivity at 10 months and both RAN and letter knowledge at 60 months. Rise time sensitivity at 60 months was significantly poorer in those children re-grouped as 60mDR, and rise time sensitivity was significantly related to concurrent phonological awareness, RAN, letter knowledge, and receptive vocabulary, but not to tests of grammatical awareness. Conclusions: The data support the view that children’s rise time sensitivity is significantly related to their pre-reading phonological abilities. These findings are discussed in terms of Temporal Sampling theory.

Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) and Dyslexia frequently co-occur. Many studies suggest that children with Dyslexia may also struggle with oral language skills, while those with DLD may also face challenges in word decoding. Both groups of children typically exhibit deficits in phonological processing [phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming (RAN), verbal short-term memory (VSTM)] and verbal working memory (VWM). Despite the increasing number of comparative studies, few have systematically examined these overlaps in children at the early stages of literacy acquisition, and few studies have systematically assessed all oral language subsystems. This study investigates: (a) differences and similarities among children with DLD, children at Risk of Dyslexia (RfD), and typically developing children (TD) in phonological processing (phonological awareness—implicit and explicit—VSTM, RAN), VWM, oral language, and word decoding; (b) patterns of performance across groups; and (c) correlations between phonological processing and VWM skills with oral language and word decoding. The participants were 45 first graders (Mage = 6.8), equally divided into three groups (DLD, RfD, and TD children). Both special groups (DLD, RfD) performed significantly worse than the TD group across nearly all measurements. DLD children showed pronounced oral language and VSTM deficits, while RfD children primarily struggled with decoding and explicit phonological awareness. Group-specific correlations emerged. The findings are discussed in light of the theoretical models of the relationship between DLD and Dyslexia taking into account the specific developmental stage.

Phenol exposure, polygenic risk score, and dyslexia in Chinese children: Gene-environment interaction.

ABSTRACT Pre-reading skills (PreRS; rapid automatised naming RAN, letter knowledge LK, lexical ability and phonological processing PP) are precursory skills specific to reading, thus described as code-related. Early identification of weak PreRS is essential regarding their predictive value for reading performance. Stability of PreRS has been suggested from an early age, but information is needed regarding their associations with other linguistic skills. Further, comparison studies between code-related and general language factors are lacking. This longitudinal study compares predictive values of PreRS and general language ability at 3;6 for PreRS at 5;0. A classification based on one hereditary dyslexia risk factor (HDRF) and its associations with PreRS are tested. Participants comprised 66 healthy, monolingual Finnish-speaking children. At 3;6, RAN, LK, lexical ability and general language ability were measured using formal tests. HDRF was reported by parents. At 5;0, previous PreRS measures were repeated, and PP was measured. Significant correlations were detected between PreRS at 3;6 and 5;0 (r .30–.76). Associations between general language ability and later PreRS were comparable (r .29–.52). In the regression analysis, PreRS explained 45%, general language ability 37% and their combined model 49% of variation in later PreRS. The model with both code-related and general language predictors fitted the data best (AIC, BIC). Groups with no or at least one HDRF differed significantly in RAN at 5;0. The findings underline the developmentally stability of early PreRS and the good explanatory value of general language ability for PreRS just before school. Information on both components is recommended when designing pre-reading interventions.

Reading processes in Brazilian pre-adolescent and adolescent students are scarcely investigated, and it is essential to identify gaps and possible dyslexic students that have not yet been determined. Therefore, the objective of this study was to characterize the reading processes in adolescents and develop criteria to identify Brazilian students at risk for dyslexia in middle school. Two hundred six students participated in the study, divided into four groups: 55 students (6th grade), 54 students (7th grade), 46 students (8th grade), and 51 students (9th grade). Initially, they were assessed collectively in the Evaluation of the Reading Processes Test. Criteria were developed, and the students were classified in relation to their reading performance as no risk, low risk (LR) and high risk (HR) for dyslexia. Only students who presented low or high risk were assessed individually, that is, 84 students. These were evaluated separately and classified in relation to accuracy and reading speed, meeting the criteria for risk for dyslexia. Finally, they were classified into phonological, visual and undefined profiles. The collective phase revealed 27.3% LR and 12.7% with HR in GI, 29.6% with LR and 25.9% with HR in 7th grade, 23.9% with LR and 13% with HR in 8th grade, and 23.5% with LR and 5.9% with HR in 9th grade. As for profiles, 34.6% met the criteria for phonological profile, 23.8% for visual profile, 2.4% for mixed profile, and 39.3% of students did not fit the established profile criteria. Assessments are necessary for this population, as evidenced by the indication of students at risk for dyslexia who have not yet been diagnosed. Finally, the study reinforces the idea of the heterogeneous nature of dyslexia in pre-adolescent and adolescent students.

ABSTRACTStudies of children at high risk of dyslexia demonstrate that oral language difficulties are a major risk factor for poor reading and that children who enter school with poor language are likely to struggle to become proficient readers. We review findings of studies of oral language intervention against a backdrop of research showing that language skills are the foundation for learning to read. Language screening to identify at‐risk children, followed by language intervention delivered as a “pull‐out” program, can improve oral language skills with positive effects on later reading and behavior in school as rated by teachers. The fidelity of delivery of such programs depends upon educators receiving appropriate training and support during delivery.

Objectives: This study aimed to develop a screening test to efficiently identify first- and second- grade elementary school children with dyslexia and to examine its reliability and validity. Methods: The dyslexia screening test includes tasks for decoding, sentence reading fluency, spelling (word, sentence), and sentence repetition. Internal consistency was assessed using Cronbach’s α, while literacy education experts and elementary school teachers evaluated content validity. Concurrent validity was examined through Pearson correlation analysis with standardized reading assessments, and discriminant validity was assessed using independent t-tests. Results: The internal consistency of each subtest exceeded .70, and content validity was above .80. Except for the first-grade decoding task, all screening tasks showed significant correlations with standardized reading assessments, supporting concurrent validity. Additionally, the reading and writing tasks successfully distinguished children at risk for dyslexia from their typically developing peers, whereas the sentence repetition task, designed to assess language ability, showed no significant difference between the groups. Conclusion: Early screening is the most crucial intervention for children with dyslexia. This study developed a dyslexia screening test for use in clinical and educational settings, confirming its reliability and validity. Future research will collect semester-based data from various regions and examine the test items’ difficulty and discrimination indices.

The study examined the effects of an emotional intelligence training programme on improving the English reading performance of university students with dyslexia risk in China. It is an experimental study with mixed-research methods. A total of 61 students with dyslexia risk were selected as an experimental group and a control group. The two groups were taught by the same English teacher using the same method. In addition, learners in the experimental group received emotional intelligence training. After 21 weeks, the research team investigated learners' English reading performance and emotional intelligence. The analysis results revealed that the mean scores for emotional intelligence (67.00 vs. 63.77, p = 0.004 < 0.01, Cohen's d = 0.764, medium effect) and English reading performance (86.97 vs. 84.55, p = 0.002 < 0.01, Cohen's d = 0.832, large effect) in the experimental group were significantly higher than those in the control group. The study uncovered that an English training programme embedded with an emotional intelligence training program promotes the English reading performance of learners with dyslexia risk significantly higher than a pure English training programme, and training EI is a potential way to improve the English reading performance of learners with dyslexia risk.

Maturation of speech-elicited event-related potentials from birth to 28 months: typical development with minor effects of dyslexia risk.

Prematurity has been linked to an increased risk of neurodevelopmental disorders, including dyslexia, due to neonatal complications that can impact brain maturation, such as intraventricular haemorrhage, periventricular leukomalacia and respiratory distress syndrome. This study examines the relationship between prematurity, neonatal conditions and dyslexia, using a sample of 120 participants divided into four groups: preterm children with dyslexia (G-PREDIX), preterm children without dyslexia (G-PREMA), full-term children with dyslexia (G-DISLX) and full-term children without dyslexia (G-NODISLX). Key neonatal variables such as gestational age, birth weight, APGAR scores, neonatal complications and NICU admission were analysed in relation to reading performance, assessed through standardized reading tests. Using multiple linear regression models, the study explored whether these early-life factors predict reading difficulties and dyslexia risk. The results indicate that neonatal complications and prematurity alone do not significantly predict dyslexia diagnosis, but a negative trend was observed between intraventricular haemorrhage and periventricular leukomalacia and reading comprehension and word decoding performance. These findings suggest that prematurity, in the absence of other risk factors, does not necessarily result in dyslexia, but when combined with specific neonatal conditions, it may increase the severity of reading difficulties. These results emphasize the importance of early assessment and targeted intervention programs to support the reading development of at-risk preterm children, particularly those with a history of neonatal complications.

BackgroundCommunication disorders pose significant barriers to interpersonal relationships during the school years. Children affected by stuttering experience lower self-esteem and struggle to form positive social connections when compared to their peers without speech difficulties. This study aimed to assess how fluency disorders impact the academic performance of school-age children.MethodsThis case-control study was conducted on 50 children aged 6 to 10.5 years with IQ ≥ 90, including both males and females. Participants were equally divided into two groups: the stutterer cases group (n = 25) and the control group (n = 25). All participants underwent a three-phase diagnostic protocol consisting of elementary diagnostic procedures (comprehensive history taking and clinical examinations), followed by clinical diagnostic aids including auditory perceptual evaluation with documentation, Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities (ITPA) to assess linguistic strengths and weaknesses, Arabic version of Stuttering Severity Instrument (SSI) to evaluate stuttering severity, and Arabic Dyslexia Assessment Test (ADAT) to assess dyslexia risk, with lower scores indicating higher risk. Additional instrumental diagnostic measures were implemented when clinically indicated.ResultsThe demographic analysis showed no significant differences in age between the case and control groups. Gender distribution differed notably, with males being more prevalent in the case group. Dyslexia was present in 44.0% of patients in the case group compared to 24.0% in the control group. Analysis revealed a correlation between stuttering severity and dyslexia. Additionally, a significant negative correlation was found between stuttering severity and mean Illinois test scores.ConclusionsWhile stuttering did not significantly affect educational achievement in learners who stutter (LWS) in comparison to the control group. Higher stuttering severity was associated with increased rates of dyslexia. Furthermore, among stutterers with dyslexia, there was a significant correlation between the severity of stuttering and the intensity of dyslexia symptoms.

Background/Objectives: Dyslexia, a prevalent reading disorder, substantially affects children's educational and social development. Early diagnosis is essential for timely intervention; however, Serbia lacks a standardized instrument for assessing dyslexia in primary school children. This study aimed to evaluate the reliability and predictive validity of the Dyslexia Screening Test-Junior (DST-J), which was adapted for the Serbian language and cultural context. Methods: The study sample comprised 647 children from the general population, aged 6 years and 6 months to 11 years and 5 months, along with 30 children of comparable age exhibiting reading difficulties. The assessment of validity was based on the at-risk quotient, predictive validity, and test-retest reliability. Results: Significant differences in at-risk quotient (ARQ) scores were found between children with and without dyslexia (t = 14.90, p < 0.001), with boys, particularly those aged 9.6 to 10.5 years, having higher risk scores than girls. Internal consistency was acceptable (Cronbach's α = 0.704), and construct validity was confirmed by correlations with external measures, which explained 44% of the variance (R2 = 0.44; p < 0.01). Predictive validity was high for key subtests such as rapid naming and phonemic segmentation, reaching maximum accuracy (sensitivity and specificity = 1). Conclusions: The findings indicate that the adapted DST-J is effective in identifying dyslexia risk among Serbian primary school children. The innovation of this study lies in the cultural adaptation of the DST-J, with future research directed towards refining this instrument and exploring additional diagnostic criteria to enhance its accuracy and inclusivity.

Kaisa Lohvansuun psykologian väitöskirja ”Brain responses to speech sounds in infants and children with and without familial risk for dyslexia” tarkastettiin Jyväskylän yliopistossa 5.12. 2015. Vastaväittäjänä toimi professori Urs Maurer (Hongkongin kiinalainen yliopisto) ja kustoksena professori Paavo Leppänen (Jyväskylän yliopisto).

ABSTRACT Purpose: to report on global scientific literature about the relationship between auditory perception and visual perception in children. Methods: a scoping review conducted using the following national and international databases: PubMed, SciELO, LILACS, Scopus, Cochrane, ScienceDirect, and Web of Science. The eligibility criteria for this review included studies that addressed the relationship between auditory perception and visual perception in children. Literature Review: six articles that met the eligibility criteria were selected. The assessment methods, objectives, and child samples of the studies were diverse. Three of the six articles demonstrated the relationship between auditory and visual perception in children with or at risk for dyslexia, one demonstrated audiovisual asynchrony in children with developmental language disorders, and two observed the association between auditory and visual perception in children with and without central auditory processing disorders. Conclusion: the review identified scientific studies demonstrating the relationship between auditory and visual perception in children. However, the literature still has few records reporting this correlation. Hence, further research is necessary to benefit children and fill gaps in the literature.

Effects of an intervention for first-grade students at risk for dyslexia