Response Of Grains Research Articles

A stochastic constitutive model and its application to HTPB propellant

AbstractTo address the issue of randomness in the mechanical properties of the hydroxyl‐terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) propellant, a stochastic constitutive model (SCM) with a lognormally distributed random parameter Λ was proposed to describe their mechanical behaviors, and the structural integrity of a HTPB propellant grain was analyzed based on it. The results indicate that the stress‐strain curves predicted by the SCM have a good agreement with the experimental curves, and the experimental curves fall within a 95 % probability interval predicted by the SCM. The mechanical response of HTPB propellant grain under ignition pressurization is associated with the random parameters Λ. The maximum equivalent stress and safety factor increase approximately linearly with the increase of random parameters Λ, while the maximum equivalent strain and maximum damage coefficient decrease approximately linearly with the increase of random parameters Λ. The error in the mechanical response of the grain obtained based on the SCM and the experimental constitutive model is basically not more than 2 %, the SCM can effectively characterize the randomness in the mechanical response of propellant grain caused by the dispersion of HTPB propellant mechanical properties.

High cycle fatigue response of grain refined EUROFER97

The present paper has investigated the high cycle fatigue behavior of EUROFER97 steel submitted to a novel process consisting of cold rolling with reduction ratio of 80 % followed by a heat treatment at 650 °C for 1 h. This process had already proved to be highly effective under static loads leading to a significant improvement in yield stress. The fatigue tests have been performed with 0.2 load ratio at room temperature. Results indicate that the fatigue strength of the steel submitted to the novel treatment is comparable to that of the standard EUROFER97. Moreover, the fatigued samples underwent a microstructural evolution consisting of grain size increase and texture change due to the stress-driven instability of grain boundaries, especially LAGBs. The collapse of some boundaries involves partial annihilation and re-arrangement of dislocations, and grain coalescence. As a consequence of such microstructural change the material softens with hardness variations up to 8 %.

An integrated physiology and proteomics analysis reveals the response of wheat grain to low temperature stress during booting

The low temperature (LT) in spring has become one of the principal abiotic stresses that restrict the growth and development of wheat. Diverse analyses were performed to investigate the mechanism underlying the response of wheat grain development to LT stress during booting. These included morphological observation, measurements of starch synthase activity, and determination of amylose and amylopectin content of wheat grain after exposure to treatment with LT during booting. Additionally, proteomic analysis was performed using tandem mass tags (TMT). The results showed that the plumpness of wheat grains decreased after LT stress. Moreover, the activities of sucrose synthase (SuS, EC 2.4.1.13) and ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase, EC 2.7.7.27) exhibited a significant reduction, leading to a significant reduction in the contents of amylose and amylopectin. A total of 509 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were identified by proteomics analysis. The GO enrichment analysis showed that the protein difference multiple in the nutritional repository activity was the largest among the molecular functions, and the up-regulated seed storage protein (SSP) played an active role in the response of grains to LT stress and subsequent damage. The KEGG enrichment analysis showed that LT stress reduced the expression of DEPs such as sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS), glucose-1-phosphate adenosine transferase (glgC), and β-fructofuranosidase (FFase) in sucrose and starch metabolic pathways, thus affecting the synthesis of grain starch. In addition, many heat shock proteins (HSPs) were found in the protein processing in the endoplasmic reticulum pathways, which can resist some damage caused by LT stress. These findings provide a new theoretical foundation for elucidating the underlying mechanism governing wheat yield development after exposure to LT stress in spring.

Chemical alterations of grain surface by cold plasma technology: Comparison of buckwheat and wheat grain responses to oxygen low-pressure plasma

Cold plasma (CP) has a great potential for decontamination or improvement of grain germination. However, disputing results have been reported, as plasma treatment can affect species and varieties of grains in different ways. The differences may be due to the chemical composition of grain pericarps, the structure of the grains and metabolic response mechanisms. CP treatment decreased grain germination rate, speed and activity of α-amylase of buckwheat grains. Such effects on both varieties of wheat grains were present after longer exposure to plasma. Lipid peroxidation was highest in buckwheat grains, whereas wheat grains were less affected. Plasma-treated Gorolka variety exhibited a low level of lipid peroxidation, no different to untreated grains, compared to Primorka grains, where longer treatment triggered higher levels of lipid peroxidation. The response of grains to CP treatment depends on the chemical and structural properties of grains pericarp, as well as plant tolerance to certain abiotic conditions.

The Response of Grain and Oil Production and Water Productivity of Sesame to Limited Irrigation Under the Conditions of Vermicompost Application

The Response of Grain and Oil Production and Water Productivity of Sesame to Limited Irrigation Under the Conditions of Vermicompost Application

Experimental and numerical investigations of anisotropic plasticity response in polycrystalline copper by nanoindentation

The deformation behavior of crystalline materials is influenced by microstructural characteristics such as crystallographic orientation and grain boundary. In this study, nanoindentation experiments and crystal plasticity finite element simulations are used to investigate the effects of these microstructural features on the mechanical properties of polycrystalline copper. A crystal plasticity constitutive model embedded with geometrically necessary dislocations is developed to simulate the indentation mechanical response of grains with different orientations. The results show that the indentation behavior of polycrystalline copper exhibits significant anisotropy due to variations in the distributions of statistically stored dislocations and geometrically necessary dislocations. Moreover, grain boundary plays a crucial role in determining the anisotropy and indentation size effect. These findings provide insights into the design of materials for plasticity applications.

Effect of Mechanical Heterogeneity on the Structural Integrity of HTPB Propellant Grain.

To investigate the structural effects of the mechanical heterogeneity of Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) propellant grain under ignition pressurization, a gradient finite element method was proposed to evaluate its structural integrity. The heterogeneous mechanical properties of the propellant grain were constructed and assessed. The results demonstrate that the mechanical properties of the propellant grain are spatially variable when taking into account the effect of the load. The range of variation in the mechanical properties is related to the size of the load and its effect on the mechanical properties of the propellant. Two key parameters that affect the mechanical response of the grain are the non-uniform distribution of the modulus and the damage strain threshold. An increase in the propellant modulus leads to an increase in the stress response and a decrease in the strain response of the propellant grain under ignition pressurization. Meanwhile, an increase in the damage strain threshold improves the propellant's modulus in the linear elastic stage in a disguised form. This also leads to an increase in the stress response and a decrease in the strain response when the strain response exceeds the damage strain threshold. The safety factor, based on the equivalent strain failure criterion of the grain, directly depends on both the strain response of the propellant grain and the maximum elongation of the propellant. Furthermore, the change in the safety factor of two propellant grains is primarily affected by the maximum elongation of the propellant.

Investigation of the Effect of Axial Gap on the Mechanical Response of a Cartridge-Loaded CMDB Propellant Grain under Vibration Loads

In this study, the effect of the axial gap on the mechanical response of a cartridge-loaded propellant grain under vibration loads is investigated. The wide strain rate range of uniaxial compression tests ( 1.7 × 10 − 3 ~ 4 × 10 3 s − 1 ) on the composite modified double base (CMDB) propellant was carried out by using a universal testing machine, a hydraulic testing machine, and a split Hopkinson pressure bar system, respectively. A linear viscoelastic constitutive model of the CMDB propellant was developed by using the experimental measurements. The results show the studied CMDB propellant has a strong strain rate dependence, exhibiting an initial linear elasticity followed by a strain hardening region. The dynamic process of collision between the propellant grain and the motor case in the axial direction induced by vibration loads was simulated with the developed constitutive model by using the finite element method. The effects of the gap size between the propellant grain and the case and the vibration frequency on the mechanical response of the grain were studied. This shows that with a constant vibration frequency, the stress of the grain increases first and then decreases with increasing gap size. Moreover, the stress increases with increasing vibration loads.

Comparing the responses of grain fed feedlot cattle under moderate heat load and during subsequent recovery with those of feed restricted thermoneutral counterparts: metabolic hormones

We set out to determine the impact of moderate heat load on the plasma concentrations of a suite of hormones involved in regulating energy metabolism and feed intake. The responses of the thermally challenged (TC) feedlot steers were compared to those of feed restricted thermoneutral (FRTN) steers. Two sequential cohorts of twelve 518 ± 23 kg Black Angus steers on finisher grain ration were housed in climate-controlled rooms (CCR) for 18 days and returned to outdoor pens for 40 days. The TC group was subjected to a diurnal range of 28–35 °C for 7 days (Challenge) but held in thermoneutral conditions beforehand (PreChallenge), and in Recovery (after Challenge). The FRTN group was held in thermoneutral conditions and feed restricted throughout. Blood was collected over the three periods in CCR and two periods in outdoor pens for 40 days (PENS and Late PENS). Plasma concentrations of prolactin, thyroid stimulating hormone, insulin, leptin, adiponectin and thyroxine (T4) were determined during the five periods. Whilst the pituitary hormones were relatively stable, there were differences in plasma leptin, adiponectin and T4 between the two groups during Challenge and Recovery, and occasionally in PENS. The interaction of the plasma hormone concentrations and rumen temperature and DMI were also investigated. Whilst the positive relationship between DMI and leptin was confirmed, we found a strong negative relationship between adiponectin and rumen temperature, and a strong positive relationship between adiponectin and dry matter intake (DMI) in the TC steers only.

Dielectric dispersion model including polarization response of a shape distribution

Formation evaluation based on the complex dielectric dispersion in the megahertz to gigahertz frequency range has become a useful method for obtaining formation properties with the development of several logging tools. Such an evaluation relies on fitting the measured dielectric signals to a dielectric dispersion model and inverting for model parameters directly associated with certain formation petrophysical properties: the water-filled porosity, the brine salinity, and a water-phase tortuosity exponent. Hence, a model that can faithfully describe the dielectric dispersion governed by those formation properties is of importance for such a practice. By incorporating the polarization response of grains with a distribution of shapes, we have improved upon a widely accepted dielectric dispersion model, the bimodal model. To efficiently approximate the overall polarization response of ensembles of grains with continuous shape distributions, we establish two approaches that use a finite number of grain shapes: a Padé approximation and samplings with a Gauss quadrature rule. The latter method provides greater flexibility in what type of shape distribution can be introduced and how they are introduced. By adopting a specific class of shape distributions sampled with a Gauss quadrature rule, a new dielectric dispersion model for brine-saturated rocks is developed using a differential effective medium approach. The new model has the same number of model parameters and should have similar use cases, clay-free clastic and carbonate formations without complex pore structures, as those of the bimodal model. By fitting our model to available core measurements, the new model better describes the dielectric dispersion of brine-saturated rocks over a broader frequency range in comparison to the bimodal model, while giving good inverted petrophysical parameters. Based on the scaling behavior of the Maxwell-Wagner polarization, the new model would be more adequate for describing the dielectric dispersion of rocks saturated with higher salinity brine.

Physiological drivers of responses of grains per m2 to environmental and genetic factors in wheat

Most of the required increases in food production over the next decades are expected to be achieved through increases in crop yield. As wheat is essential for food security it is worrying that its yield gains over the last two decades were small. To achieve further yield increases it is critical to continue increasing number of grains per unit area (GN m -2 ), the trait best related to yield. In this context, it is relevant to identify the main determinants of GN m -2 in response to genetic and environmental factors as well as the trade-offs between them. In the present study we compiled a large database across the literature to analyse the relative importance of components when affected by genetic or environmental factors, producing small or large changes in GN m -2 and its components, either numerical (the number of spikes per m 2 , SN m -2 ; and the number of grains per spike, GN spike -1 ) or physiological (spike dry weight at anthesis, SDWa; and fruiting efficiency, FE) determinants. The database included 367 papers published in: (i) Field Crop Research (FCR), (ii) European Journal of Agronomy (EJA), (iii) Crop Science (CS) and (iv) Crop and Pasture Science (CPS, formerly Australian Journal of Agricultural Research) between 1990 and 2020. The complete dataset was split into classes, depending on the source of experimental variation, environment or genotype and was normalised to remove the differences between experiments and determine the environmental and genotypic effects within each experiment. Normalised data showed that the responsiveness of GN m -2 was similarly explained by changes in both SN m -2 and GN spike -1 , but in terms of physiological components SDWa was more relevant than FE for explaining the variations in GN m -2 . Considering the numerical components of GN m -2 genotypic and environmental factors modified more GN spike -1 than in SN m -2 . On the other hand, physiological components were differently modified by genotype and environment: for genotypic effects FE was more critical than SDWa and the other way around for environmental factors. A trade-off between numerical and physiological components was observed although was greater between physiological than between numerical components. • We quantified physiological/numerical components (and trade-offs) of grains/m -2 in wheat. • We recognised differences depending on magnitude and source of variation (genetic/environmental). • Grains/spike -1 explained better grains/m -2 than spikes/m -2 , particularly for genotypes. • Genotypes affected more fruiting efficiency than spike-dry-weight-at-anthesis, environments the opposite. • Trade-offs seemed more relevant for physiological than for numerical components.

Comparing the responses of grain fed feedlot cattle under moderate heat load and during subsequent recovery with those of feed restricted thermoneutral counterparts: plasma biochemistry

Responses to heat stress in ruminants reflect the integration of local climatic conditions, environment/production system and the animal's homeostatic and homeorhetic capacities. Thus, the goal of ameliorating heat stress requires experimental settings that, within limits, closely resemble the target production system and cohort. We investigated the blood biochemical changes of two sequential cohorts of twelve 518 ± 23kg grain fed Black Angus steers. Each cohort consisted of two treatments of 6 head/group: a thermally challenged (TC) treatment and a feed restricted thermoneutral (FRTN) treatment. Both groups were housed in climate controlled rooms for 19days, with the TC group experiencing three distinct periods: PreChallenge, Challenge and Recovery. PreChallenge and Recovery delivered thermoneutral conditions, while Challenge consisted of 7days of moderate diurnal heat load. The FRTN group was maintained in thermoneutral conditions at all times. Both groups were then relocated to outdoor pens for a further 40days to detect any enduring change to metabolism as a consequence of the treatments. We compared blood biochemical responses of the treatments and inferred likely metabolic changes. Relative to the FRTN group, the TC animals experienced limited supply of triglycerides, cholesterol and glutamine during moderate heat load, suggesting constraints to energy metabolism. Lower blood urea during Recovery and in outdoor pens implied a requirement to capture N rather than allow its excretion. Altered liver enzyme profiles indicated a higher level of hepatic stress in the TC group. By the completion of feedlot finishing, the groups were not separable on most measures.

A multiscale high cycle fatigue approach based on shakedown and cohesive zone theories—Application for additive-manufactured 316L steel

A high cycle fatigue (HCF) approach based on shakedown, crystal plasticity and cohesive zone theories is developed for metals. To take into account the effect of localized plasticity in grains and grain boundaries, crystal plasticity and elastoplastic cohesive zone models are considered to calculate the mechanical responses of grains and grain boundaries at the mesoscopic scale, respectively. The Papadopoulos fatigue criterion is used to gauge the fatigue property of the grain, and a new mesoscopic fatigue criterion, based on the shakedown theory as in the Dang Van criterion, is proposed to assess the fatigue performance on the grain boundary. Based on these two fatigue criteria, the effects of dislocation slip and grain boundaries, as dominant crack initiation features in 316L steel, are explored. To validate the approach, comparison between the fatigue properties of additive-manufactured (AM) 316L steel manufactured with the different process parameters has been carried out. The simulation results show very good correlation with the experimental ones obtained by the self-heating method. The proposed approach can be used to optimize the fatigue properties of AM steel with respect of the process parameters.

Colossal Permittivity Characteristics of (Nb, Si) Co-Doped TiO2 Ceramics.

(Nb5+, Si4+) co-doped TiO2 (NSTO) ceramics with the compositions (Nb0.5Si0.5)xTi1−xO2, x = 0, 0.025, 0.050 and 0.1 were prepared with a solid-state reaction technique. X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns and Raman spectra confirmed that the tetragonal rutile is the main phase in all the ceramics. Additionally, XRD revealed the presence of a secondary phase of SiO2 in the co-doped ceramics. Impedance spectroscopy analysis showed two contributions, which correspond to the responses of grain and grain-boundary. All the (Nb, Si) co-doped TiO2 showed improved dielectric performance in the high frequency range (>103 Hz). The sample (Nb0.5Si0.5)0.025Ti0.975O2 showed the best dielectric performance in terms of higher relative permittivity (5.5 × 104) and lower dielectric loss (0.18), at 10 kHz and 300 K, compared to pure TiO2 (1.1 × 103, 0.34). The colossal permittivity of NSTO ceramics is attributed to an internal barrier layer capacitance (IBLC) effect, formed by insulating grain-boundaries and semiconductor grains in the ceramics.

Dielectric Properties of Colossal-Dielectric-Constant Na1/2La1/2Cu3Ti4O12 Ceramics Prepared by Spark Plasma Sintering.

In the current study, we report on the dielectric behavior of colossal-dielectric-constant Na1/2La1/2Cu3Ti4O12 (NLCTO) ceramics prepared by mechanochemical synthesis and spark plasma sintering (SPS) at 850 °C, 900 °C, and 925 °C for 10 min. X-ray powder diffraction analysis showed that all the ceramics have a cubic phase. Scanning electron microscope observations revealed an increase in the average grain size from 175 to 300 nm with an increase in the sintering temperature. SPS NLCTO ceramics showed a room-temperature colossal dielectric constant (>103) and a comparatively high dielectric loss (>0.1) over most of the studied frequency range (1 Hz–40 MHz). Two relaxation peaks were observed in the spectra of the electrical modulus and attributed to the response of grain and grain boundary. According to the Nyquist plots of complex impedance, the SPS NLCTO ceramics have semiconductor grains surrounded by electrically resistive grain boundaries. The colossal dielectric constant of SPS NLCTO ceramics was attributed to the internal barrier layer capacitance (IBLC) effect. The high dielectric loss is thought to be due to the low resistivity of the grain boundary of SPS NLCTO.

Microstructural characteristics governing the lattice rotation in Al-Mg alloy using in-situ EBSD

The lattice rotation behavior of Al-4%Mg alloy subjected to tensile deformation is studied through in-situ electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). The emphasis is laid on the effect of the orientation of neighbors, second phase particles, and the local deformation state on the lattice rotation characteristics. The results obtained show that the lattice rotation response of grains with similar initial orientation is largely different characterized by differences in the magnitude of rotation, rotation rate, rotation path, and activation of slip systems. The rotation path of grains towards reaching the stable end orientations is found to be governed by the microstructural relationships such as the misorientation and fraction of grain boundary segment shared with the immediate neighbors. Also, the local reorientations associated with the second phase particles, slip plane kinking, and triple junctions due to disruption of the slip activity and deformation heterogeneity of the neighbors significantly affect the average rotation of the grains and the rate of rotation. The rotation path of such local lattice rotations in grains is not strictly bound by the microstructural relationship with the neighbors. Further, when the shape change of grains introduced by local deformation mechanisms is significant, lattice rotations accompanying slip deviate from the rotation tendency based on the microstructural relationship with the neighbors. The observed dependence of lattice rotation of grains with simple slip activity on the misorientation and fraction of grain boundary segment shared with the immediate neighbors is also validated through full-field crystal plasticity simulation using DAMASK software. Simulation results also reveal the state of stress in grains that favor the initiation of local deformation mechanisms and the associated lattice reorientations observed experimentally. Altogether, this study renders gainful insights on the dependence of the lattice rotation of polycrystalline Al-4%Mg alloy on the microstructural characteristics which are of significant considerations to the development of constitutive description of crystal plasticity models in improving the accuracy of predicting the bulk engineering properties and texture development.

Response of grain filling and dehydration characteristics of kernels located in different ear positions in the different maturity maize hybrids to plant density

Response of grain filling and dehydration characteristics of kernels located in different ear positions in the different maturity maize hybrids to plant density

Investigation of relaxation phenomenon in lanthanum orthoferrite extracted through complex impedance and electric modulus spectroscopy

Impedance and electric modulus spectroscopy is exploited over a broad frequency and temperature range to find the relaxation phenomenon in LaFeO3 (LFO), which otherwise was concealed by the dc conductivity in dielectric ɛ*(ω) representation. The impedance measurements and the ac resistivity determined from Z′(ω) indicate that LFO is an insulator at room temperature and divulges the negative temperature coefficient of resistance. At higher temperatures, capacitive behavior flips to inductive behavior. The ac resistivity is exploited to determine the activation energy using the Arrhenius model. The relaxation peaks appear in the imaginary parts of electric modulus [M*(ω)] and impedance [Z(ω)], which have been exploited to determine the activation energy. The single distorted semicircle in the Nyquist and complex plots of electric modulus is evidence of the contribution of grains in the conduction process. At higher temperatures, data corresponding to the grain interior transform from an arc to a line with an intercept on the Z′(ω) axis and is parallel to the imaginary axis Z″(ω). Relaxation times calculated from the imaginary parts of impedance and electric modulus fit well in accordance with the Arrhenius law. Electron hopping, hole hopping, and oxygen vacancies play an important role in the dielectric response of grains. The relaxation frequencies of Z″(ω) and M″(ω) follow the sequence of scaling of magnitude of relaxation frequencies, i.e., fz′′≤fM′′. The separation of relaxation peaks of M″(ω) and Z″(ω) are indicative of a localized conduction process. The Giuntini law is applied to determine the hopping energies of charge carriers.

In sink-limited spring barley crops, light interception by green canopy does not need protection against foliar disease for the entire duration of grain filling

Disease management in cereals is heavily reliant on the use of fungicides, but development of anti-microbial resistance, effects on non-target organisms and persistence of active ingredients in the environment and food chain challenge the sustainability of this approach. Better targeting of fungicides according to crop need within an integrated pest management (IPM) programme could improve the sustainability of disease management. The objectives of the present study were to determine 1) the duration of protection of post-anthesis canopy light interception required to maximise the yield of spring barley and 2) to relate this to the response of crops to timing of fungicide applications. As the yield of spring barley is considered to be sink-limited (limited by the number and storage capacity of grains) rather than source-limited (limited by the amount of carbon assimilates available for grain filling) in many environments, we hypothesised that the canopy would not need to be protected for the entire grain filling period. Field experiments were conducted at two sites in the UK (Edinburgh and Herefordshire) over four years, providing contrasting climates and soil types. Shading was used to determine the response of grain filling to reductions in light interception over defined intervals, thereby mimicking effects of foliar disease on light interception, as shading is easier to control than the onset and duration of disease epidemics. Shades giving ˜67% reduction in photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) were erected over plots of disease-free crops at weekly intervals commencing at flowering and leaving them in place until harvest. The required duration of protection of light interception was estimated as the period from flowering to the time at which the onset of shading had no effect on yield. In a separate experiment the response to five fungicide timing treatments was determined on three relatively disease-susceptible varieties. Timings were the start of stem extension (referred to here as T1 only) and T1 followed by a second application at either flag leaf emergence (early T2), flowering (mid T2) or the start of rapid grain growth (late T2); untreated plots served as controls. Results showed that canopy PAR interception does not need to be protected for the entire grain filling period in order to maximise yield. The critical period determined from shading was 3–5 weeks after 50% ear emergence depending on the site year, or the first 72–90% of grain filling. There was a significant yield response to fungicide treatment in all site-years of 0.33−0.74 t ha−1 irrespective of the disease severity and yield potential of the site. Where disease severity was low to moderate a T1 application on its own gave sufficient protection during grain filling to maximise yield. Later applications increased healthy area PAR interception further, but effects occurred late during grain filling and did not increase yield. When disease was severe a T1 plus mid T2 application was required to protect PAR interception during the critical early to mid- grain filling period. These results provide the necessary physiological understanding to help target fungicide applications according to crop need.

Impact of second phase morphology and orientation on the plastic behavior of dual-phase steels

Martensite volume fraction, composition and grain size are the known primary factors controlling the mechanical behavior of ferrite-martensite dual-phase steels. Recently, excellent performances of dual-phase steels with a fibrous microstructure have been reported. However, the precise role of martensite morphology and orientation has not been thoroughly elucidated yet. This study develops a two-scale micromechanical modeling strategy in order to investigate the effect of particle morphology and orientation on the elastoplastic behavior of dual-phase steels. Finite element simulations are carried out on 3D periodic unit cells, each having a given orientation and volume fraction of spheroidal particles. The overall response is obtained by averaging the response of grains with different orientations, thus bypassing the need for costly full-field simulations on representative volume elements of realistic microstructures. A detailed parameter study systematically investigates the effect of particle morphology and orientation at grain level and at grain assembly level. While particle morphology and orientation effects lead to significant differences at grain level in terms of strain hardening behavior and back-stress development, the impact of the phase morphology at the homogenized multigrain level is almost negligible up to the onset of necking. However, the mechanical fields at the micro-scale are considerably influenced by both particle morphology and orientation, and are expected to largely impact the damage behavior through, among others, generating large grain-to-grain heterogeneities.