Renewable Hydrogen Supply Research Articles

Renewable Hydrogen Supply Scenarios for Inland Waterway Transport in Europe

The European inland waterway transport needs to substitute 6.2 TWh of fossil diesel by renewable energy carriers. For hydrogen retrofit solutions investigated in the European project “Synergetics”, different Well-to-Tank pathways have been analysed to supply renewable hydrogen to Rotterdam, including buffer storage and fuelling to vessels. This paper compares two dominant scenarios with regards to GHG emissions and costs. One scenario is based on PV electricity from Morocco, transported to Rotterdam for electrolysis. The other scenario is calculated with electricity from offshore wind farms in the Northern Sea. The calculation of the PV scenario leads to specific emissions for the hydrogen supplied to vessels of 51 gCO2eq/kWhH2 with levelized costs of hydrogen of 0.12 €/kWhH2. The wind scenario led to 16 gCO2eq/kWhH2 with 0.19 €/kWhH2. The electrolysis has the highest impact on emissions and costs, especially the electricity demand. Accordingly, lower emissions of PV electricity supply would have a high influence on the overall results. On the other hand, for the low emission renewable hydrogen supply with wind power a further reduction of the costs of the installation will be relevant.

The environmental impact of renewable hydrogen supply chains: Local vs. remote production and long-distance hydrogen transport

As a secondary energy source, hydrogen produced by water electrolysis is a promising way to sustainably use electricity generated from primary renewable resources. Thereby, hydrogen is not only a highly relevant feedstock for producing chemical products, such as fertilizers and platform chemicals, but also a valuable energy carrier that can be readily transported and stored. This study explores how transporting renewable hydrogen via pipeline from regions with high renewable energy potential to large consumer centers can help overcome current challenges in ensuring a climate-friendly renewable energy supply. To this end, this work assesses the environmental impacts of cross-border hydrogen supply chains relative to the attained operating hours of local hydrogen production and the required hydrogen transport distance via pipeline. Environmental hotspots along the hydrogen supply chain and the main parameters affecting the overall environmental impact were identified. Remarkably, an environmental trade-off emerges: the most suitable local conditions for producing renewable hydrogen need to be balanced against the distance of hydrogen transport to consumers. Nonetheless, the relevance of the transport distance decreases with an increasing share of renewable energies in the electricity mix for operating the compressor stations of the pipeline network. Considering the ongoing transition towards renewable power generation technologies, our results indicate that long-distance hydrogen transport via pipeline is environmentally justified provided that the share of renewable energies used to operate the compressor stations increases.

Contribution to net zero emissions of integrating hydrogen production in wastewater treatment plants

The reliability of renewable hydrogen supply for off-take applications is critical to the future sustainable energy economy. Integrated water electrolysis can be deployed at distributed municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), creating opportunity for reduction in carbon emissions through direct and indirect use of the electrolysis output. A novel energy shifting process where the co-produced oxygen is compressed and stored to enhance the utilisation of intermittent renewable electricity is analysed. The hydrogen produced can be used in local fuel cell electric buses to replace incumbent diesel buses for public transport. However, quantifying the extent of carbon emission reduction of this conceptual integrated system is key. In this study, the integration of hydrogen production at a case study WWTP of 26,000 EP capacity and using the hydrogen in buses was compared with two conventional systems: the base case of a WWTP with grid electricity consumption offset by solar PV and the community's independent use of diesel buses for transport, and the non-integrated configuration with hydrogen produced at the bus refuelling location operated independently of the WWTP. The system response was analysed using a Microsoft Excel simulation model with hourly time steps over a 12-month time frame. The model included a control scheme for the reliable supply of hydrogen for public transport and oxygen to the WWTP, and considered expected reductions in carbon intensity of the national grid, level of solar PV curtailment, electrolyser efficiency and size of the solar PV system. Results showed that by 2031, when Australia's national electricity is forecast to achieve a carbon intensity of less than 0.186 kg CO2-e/kWh, integrating water electrolysis at a municipal WWTP for producing hydrogen for use in local hydrogen buses produced less carbon emissions than continuing to use diesel buses and offsetting emissions by exporting renewable electricity to the grid. By 2034, an annual reduction of 390 t–CO2–e is expected after changing to the integrated configuration. Considering electrolyser efficiency improvements and curtailment of renewable electricity, the reduction increases to 872.8 t–CO2–e.

A techno-economic analysis of cross-regional renewable hydrogen supply routes in China

The cross-regional renewable hydrogen supply is significant for China to resolve the uneven distribution of renewable energy and decarbonize the transportation sector. Yet the economic comparison of various hydrogen supply routes remains obscure. This paper conducts a techno-economic analysis on six hydrogen supply routes for hydrogen refueling stations, including gas-hydrogen tube-trailer, gas-hydrogen pipeline, liquid-hydrogen truck, natural gas pipeline, MeOH truck, and NH3 truck. Furthermore, the impacts of three critical factors are examined, including electrolyzer selection, transportation distance, and electricity price. The results indicate that, with a transport distance of 2000 km, the natural gas pipeline route offers the lowest cost, while the gas-hydrogen tube-trailer route is not economically feasible. The gas-hydrogen pipeline route shows outstanding cost competitiveness between 200 and 2000 km, while it is greatly influenced by the utilization rate. The liquid-hydrogen truck route demonstrates great potential with the electricity price decreasing. This study may provide guidance for the development of the cross-regional renewable hydrogen supply for hydrogen refueling stations in China.

Technoeconomic Comparison of Scenarios for the Configuration of the Renewable Hydrogen Supply Chain in Colombia

Green hydrogen (RH2) can be used as a clean fuel and as energy vector. For this reason, it is a promising solution to the problems faced by the renewable energy (RE) industry. One determining factor for achieving its practical implementation is the correct configuration of its supply chain. This study compares different hydrogen supply chain (HSC) configurations. RH2 production will be by water electrolysis using RE in the Colombian Caribbean region, then, converted into Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carrier (LOHC), Cryogenic Liquid Hydrogen (LH2) or Compressed Hydrogen Gas (GH2), later, transported by trucks and delivered to meet the projected demand of the transportation sector. In the reference scenario, we found that the best alternative is to produce RH2 using an AEC-type electrolyser (alkaline electrolysis cells) powered by wind energy and convert it to GH2 at 350 bar for transportation and storage. Then, scenarios of demand, one-way distance and WACC were considered for projections between 2030 and 2050. The results showed that can be determined the one-way distance from which converting and transporting RH2 as LOHC is the best alternative and, also can be determined this limit for demand values, which allows us to identify the best configuration of the HSC.

Renewable hydrogen supply chains: A planning matrix and an agenda for future research

Worldwide, energy systems are experiencing a transition to more sustainable systems. According to the Hydrogen Roadmap Europe (FCH EU, 2019), hydrogen will play an important role in future energy systems due to its ability to support sustainability goals and will account for approximately 13% of the total energy mix in the coming future. Correct hydrogen supply chain (HSC) planning is therefore vital to enable a sustainable transition, in particular when hydrogen is produced by water electrolysis using electricity from renewable sources (renewable hydrogen). However, due to the operational characteristics of the renewable HSC, its planning is complicated. Renewable hydrogen supply can be diverse: Hydrogen can be produced de-centrally with renewables, such as wind and solar energy, or centrally by using electricity generated from a hydro power plant with a large volume. Similarly, demand for hydrogen can also be diverse, with many new applications, such as fuels for fuel cell electrical vehicles and electricity generation, feedstocks in industrial processes, and heating for buildings. The HSC consists of various stages (production, storage, distribution, and applications) in different forms, with strong interdependencies, which further increase HSC complexity. Finally, planning of an HSC depends on the status of hydrogen adoption and market development, and on how mature technologies are, and both factors are characterised by high uncertainties. Directly adapting the traditional approaches of supply chain (SC) planning for HSCs is insufficient. Therefore, in this study we develop a planning matrix with related planning tasks, leveraging a systematic literature review to cope with the characteristics of HSCs. We focus only on renewable hydrogen due to its relevance to the future low-carbon economy. Furthermore, we outline an agenda for future research, from the supply chain management perspective, in order to support renewable HSC development, considering the different phases of renewable HSCs adoption and market development.

Energy and environmental assessment of hydrogen from biomass sources: Challenges and perspectives

Hydrogen is considered as one of the pillars of the European decarbonisation strategy, boosting a novel concept of the energy system in line with the EU's commitment to achieve clean energy transition and reach the European Green Deal carbon neutrality goals by 2050. Hydrogen from biomass sources can significantly contribute to integrate the renewable hydrogen supply through electrolysis at large-scale production. Specifically, it can cover the non-continuous production of green hydrogen coming from solar and wind energy, to offer an alternative solution to such industrial sectors necessitating of stable supply. Biomass-derived hydrogen can be produced either from thermochemical pathways (i.e., pyrolysis, liquefaction, and gasification) or from biological routes (i.e., direct or indirect-biophotolysis, biological water–gas shift reaction, photo- and dark-fermentation). The paper reviews several production pathways to produce hydrogen from biomass or biomass-derived sources (biogas, liquid bio-intermediates, sugars) and provides an exhaustive review of the most promising technologies towards commercialisation. While some pathways are still at low technology readiness level, others such as the steam bio-methane reforming and biomass gasification are ready for an immediate market uptake. The various production pathways are evaluated in terms of energy and environmental performances, highlighting the limits and barriers of the available LCA studies. The paper shows that hydrogen production technologies from biomass appears today to be an interesting option, almost ready to constitute a complementing option to electrolysis.

Reprint of: Renewable hydrogen supply chains: A planning matrix and an agenda for future research

Worldwide, energy systems are experiencing a transition to more sustainable systems. According to the Hydrogen Roadmap Europe (FCH EU, 2019), hydrogen will play an important role in future energy systems due to its ability to support sustainability goals and will account for approximately 13% of the total energy mix in the coming future. Correct hydrogen supply chain (HSC) planning is therefore vital to enable a sustainable transition, in particular when hydrogen is produced by water electrolysis using electricity from renewable sources (renewable hydrogen). However, due to the operational characteristics of the renewable HSC, its planning is complicated. Renewable hydrogen supply can be diverse: Hydrogen can be produced de-centrally with renewables, such as wind and solar energy, or centrally by using electricity generated from a hydro power plant with a large volume. Similarly, demand for hydrogen can also be diverse, with many new applications, such as fuels for fuel cell electrical vehicles and electricity generation, feedstocks in industrial processes, and heating for buildings. The HSC consists of various stages (production, storage, distribution, and applications) in different forms, with strong interdependencies, which further increase HSC complexity. Finally, planning of an HSC depends on the status of hydrogen adoption and market development, and on how mature technologies are, and both factors are characterised by high uncertainties. Directly adapting the traditional approaches of supply chain (SC) planning for HSCs is insufficient. Therefore, in this study we develop a planning matrix with related planning tasks, leveraging a systematic literature review to cope with the characteristics of HSCs. We focus only on renewable hydrogen due to its relevance to the future low-carbon economy. Furthermore, we outline an agenda for future research, from the supply chain management perspective, in order to support renewable HSC development, considering the different phases of renewable HSCs adoption and market development.

Renewable hydrogen imports for the German energy transition – A comparative life cycle assessment

Hydrogen imports are considered as a promising pillar for the defossilisation of the German energy system. One of the main concerns when discussing hydrogen solutions is its environmental performance, especially with regard to its greenhouse gas emissions. While a large number of life cycle assessments (LCA) helps to thoroughly understand the impacts of domestic hydrogen production, the assessment of international supply chains remains scarce. On that account, this study performs a comparative LCA of liquefied hydrogen imports from Chile, Canada and Morocco to Germany in a cradle-to-gate approach. A scenario and sensitivity analysis allows to analyse the main drivers on the ecological meaningfulness and to derive recommendations for the establishment of renewable hydrogen supply chains. The results show that the import of renewable hydrogen can outperform domestic production in some cases. In the defined base case, the global warming potential of hydrogen delivered to the German gas grid ranges from 1.505 to 2.457 kgCO2eq/kgH2 or 45.2 to 73.7 gCO2eq/kWhH2,LHV for wind-based imports. Domestically produced hydrogen from wind shows emissions of 1.989 kgCO2eq/kgH2 or 59.7 gCO2eq/kWhH2,LHV. Results for hydrogen produced by solar PV range from 3.787 to 4.008 kgCO2eq/kgH2 or 113.6 to 120.3 gCO2eq/kWhH2,LHV for imports (5.195 kgCO2eq/kgH2 or 155.9 gCO2eq/kWhH2,LHV for domestic production). However, while for domestic hydrogen electrolysis is by far the predominant process step, the entire process chain needs to be taken into consideration for importing cases (e.g. the shipping distance and fuel, the electricity source for hydrogen liquefaction).

Ammonia Decomposition in the Process Chain for a Renewable Hydrogen Supply

AbstractThis review article deals with the challenge to identify catalyst materials from literature studies for the ammonia decomposition reaction with potential for application in large‐scale industrial processes. On the one hand, the requirements on the catalyst are quite demanding. Of central importance are the conditions for the primary reaction that have to be met by the catalyst. Likewise, the catalytic performance, i.e., an ideally quantitative conversion, and a high lifetime are critical as well as the consideration of requirements on the product properties in terms of pressure or by‐products for potential follow‐up processes, in this case synthesis gas applications. On the other hand, the evaluation of the multitude of literature studies poses difficulties due to significant varieties in catalytic testing protocols.

Technoeconomic and environmental assessment of HyForce, a hydrogen-fuelled harbour tug

The call for concerted global action against the climate change impact is well heard. 191 countries would communicate their progressive plans through Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as signatories to the Paris Agreement. Harbour crafts as part of the larger maritime ecosystem, can significantly contribute to reduced emissions. In this paper, HyForce, the next generation 2 MW hydrogen powered virtual tugboat was designed for a feasibility assessment for her techno-economic and environmental footprint to replace existing diesel-powered tugboats. The study compares the use of hydrogen fuel cells and an internal combustion engine to perform the same dynamic load profile for a typical tugboat mission. The results from the study show that a signpost for commercial competitiveness of HyForce is influenced primarily by the projected liquid hydrogen cost of 5.10 USD per kg in 2040 with a 2,000 USD/kW capital cost for the fuel cells.Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions from a “well-to-wake” analysis for fossil-based hydrogen and renewable hydrogen supply chains were conducted, and the results show 26.9% and 75.6% reduction, respectively, compared to similar tug running on diesel fuel.

Feasibility Study on Renewable Hydrogen Supply Chain Using LNG Cold Heat

To reduce the amount of CO2 emission, it is important to construct the supply chain of renewable H2. This study aims to investigate the feasibility on the supply chain of H2 converted by water electrolysis from electricity generated by large scale wind turbine which is assumed to be installed in Yokkaichi. The converted H2 is assumed to be consumed in Yokkaichi as well as transported to Nagoya and Iiyama and consumed there. This study compares not only the energy efficiency but also the effect of reducing CO2 emission among different H2 carriers such as compressed H2, liquefied H2, compressed CH4, liquefied CH4, organic hydride and NH3. In addition, this study investigates the effect of LNG cold heat as a sub-heat source to liquefy H2 on the energy efficiency and CO2 reduction. As a result, it is revealed that the best H2 carrier is the liquefied H2 using LNG cold heat for liquefying H2 irrespective of wind turbine output and transportation distance.

Future Hydrogen Markets for Transportation and Industry: The Impact of CO2 Taxes

The technological lock-in of the transportation and industrial sector can be largely attributed to the limited availability of alternative fuel infrastructures. Herein, a countrywide supply chain analysis of Germany, spanning until 2050, is applied to investigate promising infrastructure development pathways and associated hydrogen distribution costs for each analyzed hydrogen market. Analyzed supply chain pathways include seasonal storage to balance fluctuating renewable power generation with necessary purification, as well as trailer- and pipeline-based hydrogen delivery. The analysis encompasses green hydrogen feedstock in the chemical industry and fuel cell-based mobility applications, such as local buses, non-electrified regional trains, material handling vehicles, and trucks, as well as passenger cars. Our results indicate that the utilization of low-cost, long-term storage and improved refueling station utilization have the highest impact during the market introduction phase. We find that public transport and captive fleets offer a cost-efficient countrywide renewable hydrogen supply roll-out option. Furthermore, we show that, at comparable effective carbon tax resulting from the current energy tax rates in Germany, hydrogen is cost-competitive in the transportation sector by the year 2025. Moreover, we show that sector-specific CO2 taxes are required to provide a cost-competitive green hydrogen supply in both the transportation and industrial sectors.

Economic assessment of hydrogen production from solar driven high-temperature steam electrolysis process

Abstract A key prerequisite for the hydrogen economy is cost-effective renewable hydrogen supply. This paper provides a framework for the thermodynamic and economic assessment of solar hydrogen production from the high-temperature steam electrolysis (HTSE) route. A system configuration for the solar-driven steam electrolysis plant is proposed. The thermodynamic and economic analysis is done for varying temperature and current density conditions of the solid oxide electrolyzer powered by concentrated solar (CSP) and photovoltaic (PV) power plants. Based on the expected reductions in the cost of plant components, the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH2) for the 2030 scenario is evaluated. Conditions for the viability of this route are checked by comparing the results with the polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis (PEME) process. The optimum energy efficiency of a PV driven process increases from 9.1% at 873 K, 1500 A/m2 to 12.1% at 1273 K, 8000 A/m2. For the electrolyzer operating at 873 K, the optimum LCOH2 of 22 $/kg is obtained at 6000 A/m2. For the electrolyzer temperature of 1073 K, LCOH2 drops from 16 $/kg at 5000 A/m2 to 12.1 $/kg at 10000 A/m2. When compared to PEME, this route becomes viable beyond 973 K, 6000 A/m2 for PV and 923 K, 3000 A/m2 for CSP driven processes. With the current state of economics, this process is not competitive with the industrial steam methane reforming route. However, the cost target of 6–8 $/kg is achievable if the component costs reduce to 2030 level. Thus, the process has potential to be commercially viable and should be pursued further by creating prototype and pilot scale demonstrations.

Assessing Uncertainties of Well-To-Tank Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Hydrogen Supply Chains

Hydrogen is a promising energy carrier in the clean energy systems currently being developed. However, its effectiveness in mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions requires conducting a lifecycle analysis of the process by which hydrogen is produced and supplied. This study focuses on the hydrogen for the transport sector, in particular renewable hydrogen that is produced from wind- or solar PV-powered electrolysis. A life cycle inventory analysis is conducted to evaluate the Well-to-Tank (WtT) GHG emissions from various renewable hydrogen supply chains. The stages of the supply chains include hydrogen being produced overseas, converted into a transportable hydrogen carrier (liquid hydrogen or methylcyclohexane), imported to Japan by sea, distributed to hydrogen filling stations, restored from the hydrogen carrier to hydrogen and filled into fuel cell vehicles. For comparison, an analysis is also carried out with hydrogen produced by steam reforming of natural gas. Foreground data related to the hydrogen supply chains are collected by literature surveys and the Japanese life cycle inventory database is used as the background data. The analysis results indicate that some of renewable hydrogen supply chains using liquid hydrogen exhibited significantly lower WtT GHG emissions than those of a supply chain of hydrogen produced by reforming of natural gas. A significant piece of the work is to consider the impacts of variations in the energy and material inputs by performing a probabilistic uncertainty analysis. This suggests that the production of renewable hydrogen, its liquefaction, the dehydrogenation of methylcyclohexane and the compression of hydrogen at the filling station are the GHG-intensive stages in the target supply chains.

Assessing the potential of CO2 utilization with an integrated framework for producing power and chemicals

The conventional thinking on CO2 utilization begins with the capture and concentration of CO2 from an emitting source. Here we propose the concept of a CO2-neutral chemicals production process comprising a network of reactions, which begin with the oxy-combustion of methane, the energy source for the process, and end with the production of chemicals with significant global demands. The proposed framework derives all its energy demand from methane and converts excess energy to electricity, and CO2 produced is converted to useful chemicals. The proposed concept provides a framework to obtain an optimistic estimate for the global impact of CO2 utilization subject to the maximum current and projected global demands for all chosen chemicals. Crucially, hydrogen produced internally in the process is not sufficient to achieve both CO2 neutrality and meet global demands for the chosen chemicals. Thus, based on the source of hydrogen, we present results from three different scenarios. First, we assumed unlimited renewable hydrogen supply. In this scenario, the estimated CO2 avoidance was 59% for the 2013 emission levels. The CO2 avoidance dropped dramatically to 6% in the second scenario, which assumed renewable energy at its current global levels. Finally, if the process were limited by the internally produced hydrogen only, then the CO2 avoidance reduced to 1%. Thus, the potential of CO2 utilization depends on the availability of renewable hydrogen.

An integrated decision support model for design and operation of a wind-based hydrogen supply system

We aim to develop a new optimization-based approach for the strategic planning of a renewable hydrogen supply system using onshore and offshore wind energy. To achieve this goal, we develop an optimization model to design and analyze a wind-powered hydrogen supply (WPHS) system using a mixed-integer linear programming technique. In this model, we include decision variables to account for a wide range of issues regarding the proposed system, from the technical selection of the wind turbine and wind farm layout design to strategies for onshore/offshore wind farm and hydrogen supply network development. To illustrate the capability of the proposed approach, we present a case study pertaining to the design of the WPHS system for the road transportation sector of Jeju Island, Korea. Using the proposed approach, we are able to i) identify the configuration and operational practices of an optimal WPHS system, ii) analyze the cost distribution and major cost drivers through economic evaluation, and iii) provide decision-making guidance to stakeholders and policy makers for planning an economically viable and a sustainable hydrogen supply system using various policies to encourage offshore wind farm development.

Optimization model for the design and analysis of an integrated renewable hydrogen supply (IRHS) system: Application to Korea's hydrogen economy

This paper presents a framework for the design and assessment of a renewable energy sources (RES)-based hydrogen supply system. We generate an integrated renewable hydrogen supply (IRHS) system that includes various types of RES and hydrogen technologies such as production, storage, and transportation. We then develop a multi-period deterministic optimization model for the IRHS system by using a mixed integer linear programming (MILP) technique. The proposed model optimizes the configuration and operational strategy of the IRHS system. The capability of the proposed model is demonstrated through its application to the design problem of Korea's future hydrogen economy. We perform an economic evaluation to identify the major parameters for the required cost of the energy system infrastructure.

Model for biomass-based renewable hydrogen supply chain

SUMMARY Pakistan though a developing country has a strong agrarian economy which in turn leads to a strong resource of biomass. Further, the effects of climate change scenario discourage the use of biomass as a combustion fuel. An integrated renewable hydrogen model has been developed based on biomass feed stocks as the input material for hydrogen production. It has been found that hydrogen can be produced at rates comparable with steam methane reforming, which is one of the most economical methods of generating hydrogen. However, the model must have a strong statistical base and an up-to-date geographical information system to present accurate and logical results for effective energy planning. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Model for Biomass Based Renewable Hydrogen Supply Chain

Pakistan though a developing country has a strong agricultural background which in turn leads to a strong resource of biomass. Further, the climate change scenario discourages the use of biomass as a combustion fuel. An integrated renewable hydrogen model has been developed based on biomass feed stocks as the raw input material for hydrogen production. It has been found that hydrogen can be produced at rates compatible with steam methane reforming, one of the most economical methods of generating hydrogen. However the model must have a strong statistical base and an up-to-date Geographical Information system to present accurate and logical results for effective energy planning.