Renewable Energy Transportation Research Articles

Future renewable energy targets in the EU: Impacts on the German transport

The transport sector is at the center of discussions on accelerating the energy transition due to its still increasing contribution to greenhouse gas emissions worldwide; therefore, the EU has set binding targets for the use of renewable energy in transport through the Renewable Energy Directive. To analyze the economic impact of these targets, we developed an optimization model that considers bio- and electricity-based fuel options, various transport sectors, and future policy requirements. Our study of the German transport sector found that imported alternative fuels play a key role in reducing fossil fuel usage. We also identify two technological and managerial obstacles: policymakers need to prioritize the rapid electrification of vehicles in the near future; and in the distant future, more attention is needed in research for new technologies in commercial transport. Although our findings are tailored to Germany, the employed approach can be transferred to other models and countries.

PROSPECTS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF ADVANCED BIOFUELS IN UKRAINE

Perspective directions for the development of motor biofuels market in Ukraine are considered. It is shown that Ukraine has a significant potential for the production of liquid biofuels for the transport sector. Today, it is mainly biodiesel and bioethanol of the first generation, since the technologies for obtaining advanced biofuels from lignocellulosic feedstocks are not yet sufficiently developed in the country. However, as these technologies improve, one of directions for the development of motor biofuels market will be the expansion of production opportunities for second generation (advanced) biofuels with a significant share of their export to EU countries. Directive (EU) 2018/2001 on renewable energy sources (RED II) limits the share of 1st generation biofuels in achieving the goals for the consumption of renewable energy in transport. The share of such biofuels in a certain EU country can be no more than 1 % higher than the share of these biofuels in the gross final energy consumption of road and rail transport of that country in 2020, but no more than 7 %. For Ukraine, this means that the share of 1st generation biofuels in the final energy consumption in transport in 2030 cannot exceed 1.85 %, since in 2020 this indicator was 0.85 %. A possible option for solving this problem is to coordinate with the European Commission the issue of increasing the quota of 1st generation biofuels for Ukraine to 7 % in 2030, which is equivalent to the consumption of 503 ktoe/y. In the future, it seems appropriate to develop the production of advanced bioethanol from byproducts of grain corn cultivation as well as advanced biodiesel from oilseed energy crops grown on unused agricultural land. According to RED II, such biodiesel is not subject to restrictions on biofuels produced from food or feed crops. Production and consumption of biomethane is also a promising direction for the introduction of renewable energy in transport. It is shown that the total potential of biogas production in Ukraine is currently 8.16 Mtoe/y, of which a quarter can be allocated for the transport needs. By 2050, the production potential of biogas as a motor fuel may increase to 4.7 Mtoe/y, mainly due to the use of cover crops as feedstock to obtain biogas. Bibl. 21, Tab. 4.

Wise use of renewable energy in transport

The transport sector accounts for around 25 % of global energy use, considering both fuel production and consumption. To mitigate climate change, a fast decarbonization of transport is therefore often seen as a necessity, as advocated by the International Energy Agency in its Net Zero by 2050 scenario. In contrast, Shell's Sky scenario envisages Net Zero by 2070 by first picking the lowest hanging fruits within all sectors, and hence a much slower de-carbonization of the transport sector. We investigate how renewables, a scarce resource over the next decades, could be used most wisely within the transport sector or alternatively within the energy sector. Our results stress that priority up to 2050 should be: First, to use new renewable energy to replace coal fired electricity production to nearly decarbonize the electricity grid; Second, to gradually electrify road transport; Third, continued use of fossil fuel in shipping and aviation.

ПЕРЕХОД К ВОЗОБНОВЛЯЕМЫМ ИСТОЧНИКАМ ЭНЕРГИИ НА ТРАНСПОРТЕ: РОССИЙСКИЙ И СЕВЕРОЕВРОПЕЙСКИЙ (НОРВЕГИЯ И ФИНЛЯНДИЯ) ОПЫТ

The transport sector accounts for about a quarter of the world’s total energy consumption, with most of it on road transport. The consumption of fossil fuels (gasoline and diesel fuel) dominates in road transport. Due to environmental problems, there is an urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in alternative vehicles and low-carb fuels based on renewable energy sources. The article analyzes the strategic documents of Russia, Finland and Norway in the field of the use of renewable energy in transport, discusses the main trends and prospects for the use of renewable energy in transport. The Finnish and Norwegian experience of switching to RES in transport shows that this requires significant government subsidies and tax incentives, as well as the willingness of the population to bear additional costs to ensure a high quality of life.

Thermochemical liquefaction of Brassica napus straw: Effect of liquefaction parameters on biocrude

Rape straw ( Brassica napus ) was used to prepare high-quality biocrude (ORS) through thermochemical liquefaction . The effects of liquefaction temperature, solid-liquid ratio (R 1 ), and solvent filling ratio (R 2 ) on the yield of ORS prepared from rape straw were studied. The yield of ORS reached the maximum value (22.11 %) at 340 °C, with R 1 10 % and R 2 20 %. GC-MS analysis indicated that at low liquefaction temperatures (≤300 °C) the compounds in ORS were mainly esters, whereas at higher temperatures they were mainly phenolic compounds . Analysis based on the boiling points indicated the presence of mainly C 8 , C 9 , and C 20 compounds. Elemental analysis and measurement of the higher heating value (HHV) showed that the HHV of ORS at 340 °C was 41.36 MJ/kg. The process described in this work not only effectively disposes of rape straw, but also converts it into a potential renewable transportation energy alternative. • Biocrude was prepared by liquefaction of rape straw. • The yield of biocrude reached the maximum value (22.11 %) at 340 °C (R 1 :10 %, R 2 :20 %). • The main compounds of biocrude produced at lower temperature (≤300 °C) were esters. • The carbon number of biocrude compounds mainly distributed in C 8 , C 9 and C 20 . • The higher heating value of biocrude at 340 °C reached 41.36 MJ/kg.

Assessing Land Use Efficiencies and Land Quality Impacts of Renewable Transportation Energy Systems for Passenger Cars Using the LANCA® Method

Targets to reduce global warming impacts of the transportation sector may lead to increased land use and negative land quality changes. The aim of this paper is to implement the Land Use Indicator Calculation in Life Cycle Assessment (LANCA®) model to assess land quality impacts and land use efficiencies (concerning occupation and transformation) of different example renewable transport energy systems for passenger cars. In addition, the land use impacts are normalized according to the Soil Quality Index building on LANCA® and included in the environmental footprint. The assessment is based on information from GaBi life cycle assessment software databases and on literature. Functional unit of the model is to provide annual drive of 18,600 km for a passenger car in the EU. The analysis includes examples of biomass, electricity, electricity to fuels and fossil-based energy systems. Our findings confirm previous research that biomass-based transport energy systems have risks to lead to significantly higher land occupation and transformation impacts than do fossil oil or electricity-based ones. According to the LANCA® model, methane from Finnish wood and German corn has the highest impacts on filtration and the physicochemical filtration reduction potential. Sugarcane ethanol and palm oil diesel systems, on the other hand, lead to the highest erosion potential. Electricity-based transportation energy systems appear to be superior to biomass-based ones from the perspectives of land occupation, land transformation, and soil quality impacts for the selected examples. Land quality impacts should be taken into account when developing and expanding renewable transportation energy systems. The paper shows that the LANCA® method is applicable for the assessment of transport systems in order to provide extended information on environmental sustainability, which should be included more often in future analysis. However, it can be challenging to interpret underlaying assumptions, especially when aggregated information is used from databases.

Positioning the biofuel policy in the bioeconomy of the BioEast macro-region

This study outlines and reviews the concerted biofuels’ policy for transport of eleven countries in central and eastern Europe (BioEast macro-region). Policy preferences collected from relevant government representatives of the region are analyzed using choice architecture and fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process. The experts’ preferences concerning criteria related to land use, decarbonization and development of a national market are ranked with similar importance, with a slight preference for the latter. The results demonstrate a great variation in the priorities for forming and implementing biofuel policies in the region, strongly related to national realities (e.g. available land for biofuel production, target fulfilment). Countries delaying in their biofuel targets aim at policies that fulfil internal demands without considering other criteria related to land use issues and own sources. The results show a general agreement (95% consensus) of having about 66% of renewable energy in transport covered from biofuels resulting from domestic biomass supply. Yet, there are differing preferences in the policy options at country level, which makes a single consensus policy for the macro-region challenging. Finally, the results highlight the different degrees of policy intervention that are implicit in the policy preferences of the national decision makers.

From preferences to concerted policy on mandated share for renewable energy in transport

Environmental, energy, transport and agriculture policies are intersecting when deciding on renewable energy in transport (RES-T) implementation strategies. The uncertainty related to the advanced biofuels, limitations and underperformance of readily available technologies for decarbonization of transport sector challenges RES-T policy making. This paper employs partitioning as a choice architecture tool to create a concerted RES-T policy. The approach collects the preferred attributes of an alternative fuel rather than the preferred fuel by guiding stakeholders through RES-T policy, ensuring that all aspects of concerted policy are covered. Fuzzy analytical hierarchical process (fAHP) has been superimposed on the partitioning related to the biofuels to mathematically weight the alternatives. fAHP ranks the weighted preferences on biofuels to build a consensus among stakeholder groups, later translated to the actual RES-T mix, quantities and investments needed to meet the mandated share. Applied on Croatia, the preferences of three stakeholder groups were weighted and ranked; whereas some discrepancies were identified, the consensus outlined the national transport decarbonization policy with related investments. When the consensual RES-T mix contrasted with the least-cost alternative, the investment needed was reduced to a quarter. The collaborative management process proved to be a time-effective participatory approach for a silo-based policy structure.

Development of Alternative Fuels in Europe Presents Opportunity for the Middle East

This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights of paper SPE 198165, “Alternative Fuels Development in Europe: Threat or Opportunity for the Middle East?” by Maarten Van Haute, Kuwait Petroleum Research and Technology, prepared for the 2019 SPE Kuwait Oil and Gas Conference and Show, Mishref, Kuwait, 13-16 October. The paper has not been peer reviewed. In December 2018, the revised Renewable Energy Directive (RED) [European Union (EU)] 2018/2001 was implemented, establishing a new binding renewable EU energy target for 2030 of at least 32%, with a clause for a possible upward revision by 2023. The subtarget for renewable energy in transport was raised to 14%. The scope of the complete paper is limited to the 14% renewable energy target in transport and its possible effect on the Middle East. Introduction The first portion of the complete paper includes an extended discussion of the RED and definitions needed to appreciate its conclusions that the production and consumption of fossil fuels will be reduced gradually and replaced by renewable alternatives. This is an economically threatening situation for any country whose gross domestic product is dependent upon oil. The energy transition is a slow but steady process, so nations of the Middle East are reviewing their long-term strategies. Energy-transition and renewable-energy developments, however, may offer solutions and opportunities for these nations. Overview of Renewable Fuels Biofuels. According to the definition provided in the RED, biofuels refers to liquid fuel for transport produced from biomass. A delineation from crude oil is in order before these fuels are discussed in detail. One might consider crude oil a fuel from biomass, but, because the biomass is fossil and the process cannot be replenished within a human time scale, it is not considered renewable. Biomass used to produce biofuels is a mix of hydrocarbons that has high oxygen content and a limited amount and type of unsaturated hydrocarbons. The role of oxygen and unsaturated hydrocarbons (which are less stable) and the limited amount of hydrocarbon species are the biggest challenges for biofuels production. These feedstocks all need a pretreatment step to liquefy or gasify the hydrocarbons so they can be processed in a refinery. Many pretreatment options exist for different feedstocks under development. The RED makes a distinction between first-generation biofuels and advanced biofuels. The latter are those made of feedstocks that generally are waste-based or nonfood-based feedstocks. The allowed percentage of first-generation biofuels is capped. The supply of this first generation is not limited by availability or lack of conversion processes but rather by its competition with the food chain and vast deforestation. To achieve sustainability, the development of advanced biofuels, where the choice of feedstock and pretreatment and conversion technology is key, should be prioritized. Feedstocks will be at much lower volumes than crude and less consistent in quality, so the advanced-biofuels-processing industry likely will comprise many small bioprocessing units.

Renewable Energy in Final Energy Consumption and Income in the EU-28 Countries

The deployment of renewable energy sources (RES) is considered to be an important objective for the energy sector in the European Union (EU). The EU Directive adapted in 2009 fixed mandatory national targets for the use of renewable energy in transport as well as for the share of RES in the gross final energy consumption. Contrary to previous studies, this paper does not examine the link between the RES and economic growth but rather focuses on real gross domestic product (GDP) and the implementation of national renewable energy targets. We employ panel data models for the case of the EU-28 countries covering the period between 2007 and 2017 that yield a low and positive relationship between the impact of GDP per capita and the share of RES in the final consumption. Our results show that there is a significant causality only from real GDP per capita to the share of renewable energy in final consumption, marking the potential of developed countries to consume more RES. We list some groups of countries according to these variables using a cluster analysis approach. Starting from the proposed panel data models, we constructed the scenarios for the 2020 for various shares of RES and different EU Member States. Overall, it appears that more attention should be attributed to policy proposals in which funding opportunities would be dependent on the achievements of national targets and economic benefits should be given to countries with very good performance in achieving high shares of renewable energy in their final energy consumption.

Evaluation of Economic Impacts of Biodiesel Production in Slovakia

Abstract The increasing consumption of energy, as well as exhaustibility of fossil resources, initiate the necessity of finding renewable resources. Especially biofuels represent the important role in terms of renewable resources, development of which is often question under debate in many countries. By increasing of blending mandate in the European Union (EU), the SR after joining the EU forced to implement the changes in its action plan for renewable energy in transport and set benchmarks share of methyl ester of rapeseed oil in diesel fuel. The aim of the paper is to evaluate the economic impact of biodiesel production in the Slovak republic. At the same time, biofuel production has an impact on the price of conventional fuels. The relationship between biofuel production and prices of agricultural crops as well as conventional fuels we examined through regression and correlation analysis, which showed that between production of biodiesel and the prices indicated exists certain dependency.

EFFECTS OF THE EU BIOFUEL USE DIRECTIVE ON THE RURAL AREA DEVELOPMENT IN POLAND

The directives obligating the use of renewable energy in transport stimulate the biofuels demand. The aim of the paper was to review the impact of EU directives related to biofuel use on the rural area development in Poland. The research scope covered the rapeseed oil methyl ester production in Poland from 2011 through 2017. The study applies the descriptive comparative methods based on the subject literature as well as data from KOWR, GUS, and PSPO. The findings indicate that the biofuel production not only allows for diversification of energy used in transportation, but also constitutes an important element of the development of rural area. In Poland, the increase in the biofuel demand is conducive to the increase in the agricultural production profitability and reduces disparities in agriculture income. Moreover, it significantly contributes to the increase of feed components supply due to the rape cake production resulting from the oil pressing.

Does Renewable Energy Drive Sustainable Economic Growth? Multivariate Panel Data Evidence for EU-28 Countries

Energy is crucial to economic progress, but the contemporary worldwide population increase that demands greater energy generated from conventional exhaustible resources, an energy price upsurge, and environmental concerns, imperils sustainable economic growth. Nevertheless, switching to renewable energy produced from naturally replenished resources promotes energy security, likewise addressing issues such as global warming and climate change. This paper aims at exploring the influence and causal relation between renewable energy, both overall and by type, and sustainable economic growth of European Union (EU)-28 countries for the period of 2003–2014. We notice that the mean share of renewable energy in the gross final energy consumption is 15%, while the mean share of renewable energy in transport fuel consumption is 3%, which are below the thresholds of 20% and 10%, respectively, as set by the EU Directive 2009/28/EC. By estimating panel data fixed-effects regression models, the results provide support for a positive influence of renewable energy overall, as well as by type, namely biomass, hydropower, geothermal energy, wind power, and solar energy on gross domestic product per capita. However, biomass energy shows the highest influence on economic growth among the rest of renewable energy types. In fact, a 1% increase of the primary production of solid biofuels increases GDP per capita by 0.16%. Besides, cointegrating regressions set on panel fully modified and dynamic ordinary least squares regressions confirm the positive influence related to the primary production of renewable energies on economic growth. A 1% increase in primary production of renewable energies increases GDP per capita by 0.05%–0.06%. However, the results of Granger causality based on panel vector error correction model indicate both in short-run and long-run a unidirectional causal relationship running from sustainable economic growth to the primary production of renewable energies, being supported the conservation hypothesis.

Social Dynamics of Renewable Energy—How the European Union’s Renewable Energy Directive Triggers Land Pressure in Tanzania

The European Union plays a globally influential role in environmental legislation, with policies and regulation rooted in particular norms. Through a narrative on regulatory capitalism, ecological modernization, and diffusion, we trace how the promotion of renewable energy in transport through subsidies, mandatory targets, and prescriptive criteria for liquid biofuels mobilize social forces for its market development. The study identifies prevailing norms, mechanisms of decision making, and the network of actors involved in this regulatory regime and also identifies where and through whom its expansion influenced decisions in Tanzania. The findings show how this regime emphasizes systematic eco-innovation of energy technologies, has a substitutable approach to natural capital, and subordinates social concerns to economic efficiency. The analysis shows how this regime mobilized a broader network of actors with similar interests, who mediated the political space of liquid biofuels in Tanzania in ways which conflicted with a domestic critique concerning land use.

Efficiency Comparisons of Secondary Biofuels

Biofuels are essential for the energy production of the future. This report is a meta-study of the efficiencies of first, second and third generation secondary biofuels used for transportation purposes. We present and compare data from several studies concerning the efficiency of converting raw biomass info biofuels. We also compare this data to the efficiencies of hydrogen and solar power transportation systems. The efficiency data was presented as percentages from ratios of different data types, primarily exergy and energy efficiency ratios, which are defined for each study throughout the report. The highest efficiency percentages were displayed by second-generation wood knot rejects that did not require pretreatment input energy and resulted in high-energy ethanol output. The lowest efficiency percentages were from quasi-solar thermophotovoltaic radiator technology, heightening the reputation of biofuels as the efficient, renewable transportation energy source of tomorrow.

Rudderless in a Sea of Yellow: The European Political Economy Impasse for Renewable Transport Energy

Faced with the twin challenges of anthropogenic climate change and ‘peak oil’, the need for an urgent and radical transformation of transport energy has been widely recognised. Adopting a neo-Polanyian economic sociology approach, this article asks what conditions European governance capacity to respond to these challenges, at either national or regional levels, using biofuels as a case study. It asks if the complexity of its political institutions, and the heterogeneity of interests and economic organisations, present ‘the biggest obstacle of all’ (Cohen 2007) to reduce fossil fuel dependency. By examining the European Commission level and comparing five countries, evidence is produced for a political failure in terms of continued fossil fuel dependency. Incumbent interests in the agricultural sector and a distinctively European legacy of a transport fleet dependent on fossil diesel, have led to a marriage of convenience between rapeseed farmers and vehicle manufacturers. As a consequence, rather than escaping from the path dependency on fossil fuels (Unruh 2000), Europe has gone down a cul-de-sac of rapeseed biodiesel inherently limited in scope, and with the low levels of greenhouse gas emissions savings. Ironically this outcome is in part an unintended consequence of opposition to biofuels from environmentalist groups and politics.

Energy balance and GHG emissions of cassava-based fuel ethanol using different planting modes in China

Cassava-based fuel ethanol (CFE) is playing an increasingly important role in renewable transportation energy in the Guangxi Province in China. Previous studies have evaluated the energy and greenhouse gas (GHG) performance of CFE, but they have largely overlooked the influences of different agricultural planting modes. In this study, five scenarios related to cassava planting modes were selected to evaluate the lifecycle energy balance and GHG emissions of the CFE system. The results show that, although all the five CFE scenarios show positive net energy values (NEV) and GHG emissions savings compared with the conventional gasoline, the planting modes have significant impacts on their energy and GHG performance. Modes that are considered intensive (i.e. high fertilizer use intensity and highly mechanized harvesting) generally show poorer performance than the extensive ones, primarily because of the intensive energy consumption and GHG emissions during nitrogen fertilizer production, the N2O emission of nitrogen fertilizer use, and higher yield loss rate caused by mechanized harvesting. This study shows that it is important to evaluate the planting modes when producing bioethanol in order to gain an understanding of the life-cycle energy use and GHG performance.

Assessment of the resource associated with biomethane from food waste

This paper assesses the resource of biomethane produced from food waste at a state level in the EU. The resource is dependent on the quantity of food waste available for anaerobic digestion and the specific methane yield from food waste. The specific method of undertaking biomethane potential (BMP) tests was shown to be crucial. BMP tests were carried out at different scales (5L and 0.5L) with different sources of inoculum, for both wet and dried substrate samples. The upper bound BMP results for source segregated canteen food waste gave specific methane yields of between 467 and 529L CH4 per kg volatile solids added. The higher results were associated with acclimatised inoculum and wet samples of food waste. The potential renewable resource of biomethane from food waste is shown to be equivalent to 2.8% of energy in transport in Ireland; this is significant as it surpasses the resource associated with electrifying 10% of the private car fleet in Ireland, which is currently the preferred option for renewable energy in transport in the country. However for this resource to be realised within the EU, source segregation of food waste must be effected. According to the Animal By-Products Regulations, digestate from source segregated food waste may be applied to agricultural land post anaerobic digestion. Digestate from food waste derived from a mixed waste source may not be applied to agricultural land. Thus biomethane from food waste is predicated on source segregation of food waste.

Impacts of Electric Vehicle charging under electricity market operations

The Irish government set a target in 2008 that 10% of all vehicles in the transport fleet be powered by electricity by 2020. Similar electric vehicle targets have been introduced in other countries. In this study the effects of 213,561 electric vehicles on the operation of the single wholesale electricity market for the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland is investigated. A model of Ireland’s electricity market in 2020 is developed using the power systems market model called PLEXOS for power systems. The amount of CO2 emissions associated with charging the EVs and the impacts with respect to Ireland’s target for renewable energy in transport is also quantified. A single generation portfolio and two different charging scenarios, arising from a peak and off-peak charging profile are considered. Results from the study confirm that off-peak charging is more beneficial than peak charging and that charging EVs will contribute 1.45% energy supply to the 10% renewable energy in transport target. The net CO2 reductions are 147 and 210 kt CO2 respectively.

Assessment of the EU target on renewable energy for transport in the framework of the European vegetable oil sector

Biofuels is currently driving the interest in bioenergy sector. The recently issued Renewable Energy Directive (2009/28/EC) confirms the 10% target, set by the EC, for energy from renewable sources in transport. The European Union is the largest producer of biodiesel in the world and biodiesel is also the most important biofuel used in the EU. The aim of this paper is to investigate the biomass feedstock requirement, under different scenarios, with a focus on vegetable oils. The European production potential is compared with the amount of biomass required to meet the target on biofuels. Next generation biofuels and alternative feedstock for first generation pathways are considered as well as the share of biomass import. The scenario proposed allows to estimate the land required to meet the target at 2020 on biodiesel. Assuming different contribution of the next generation biofuels, from the 10% to the 30% is possible to estimate the contribution of first generation biodiesel. The results showed that, considering the total European arable land, this production will utilise 9–13%.