Renewable Energy Directive Research Articles

Effects of Sowing Dates and Genotypes of Castor (Ricinus communis L.) on Seed Yield and Oil Content in the South Mediterranean Basin

To evaluate the performance of dwarf castor hybrids (‘C1012’, ‘C857’, ‘C856’), compared to a local selected genotype, in four subsequent sowing dates (SW1, SW2, SW3, SW4), a trial was conducted at the experimental farm of the University of Catania (Sicily, Italy). The length of the growing season decreased with the increase of the sowing date in the average genotypes from 160 to 94 days, respectively, for the first and the last sowing date. According to the RED—Renewable Energy Directive, the genotype ‘C856’ was the earliest (112 days), resulting in suitability as a catch crop for biomass production. The results showed that early spring sowings negatively impact dwarf hybrid production (1.2 and 1.5 Mg ha−1 in SW1 and SW2, in the average of the three hybrids), which reached the highest yield in the third sowing date (2.0 Mg ha−1), preferring warmer temperatures for the germination of seeds. On the contrary, the ‘Local’ genotype reached the highest yield (1.6 Mg ha−1) in the first sowing date and linearly decreased in the subsequent ones. Nonetheless, the third sowing date positively influenced the oil content and the oil yield in all dwarf genotypes except the ‘Local’ genotype, which showed the highest oil yield in the first sowing date.

Thermal energy community-based multi-dimensional business model framework and critical success factors investigation in the mediterranean region of the EU

Rural areas have gained relevance in the EU policy framework as a result of the experienced depopulation trend experienced in these areas. Smart Rural Communities are recognized as effective means to tackle this issue by delivering smart services to local population leading to improved economic competitivity. One of the major challenges, among others, is to deliver renewable energy matching existing demand in opposition of fossil-fuel based solutions. To this end, Energy Communities (EC) potential to deploy Renewable Energies (RE) while improving supplier – consumer engagement and empowering the energy consumer. Despite the advances throughout the EU in the deployment of ECs, the vast majority of them are based on PV systems, leaving a huge path for development of novel business models for thermal energy communities, mainly due to the existing economic and social barriers to thermal energy communities’ deployment.The present work aims at contributing to the closure of this research gap by systematizing community-based business model arrangements for thermal energy communities’ deployment to then identify the relevance of main affecting parameters and identify the critical success factors for business model success. To do so, a novel multi-dimensional business model framework is proposed to promote the deployment of Thermal Energy Communities based on the use of local biomass with a District Heating (DH) network distribution system. The proposed framework analyses business model viability in terms of economic and environmental benefits for different EC layouts according to spatial configuration of the demand –clustered/urban vs. scattered/rural – and to demand profile – industrial/low seasonality vs. residential/high seasonality. Results show that business models are economically viable in terms of payback period below boiler service life and NPV/IRR of the investment needed for all cases, although best results are obtained for clustered and industrial demand as a result of lower investment requirements to deliver the same amount of energy. Critical success factors to ensure business model viability are also investigated, finding the minimum natural gas tariff that makes economically viable the thermal EC business proposition. Last, the business model incorporates the use of digital tools for biomass traceability and low carbon certification enabling local biomass use and supplier – consumer transparency that promotes greater stakeholder engagement. Also, biomass digital traceability is aligned with current regulatory framework in the EU, namely the Renewable Energy Directive (RED II) and the upcoming revision of it (RED III), making the EC business model up-to-date and competitive in terms of services offered to the end-user.

Technoeconomic and Environmental Assessment of Biomass Chemical Looping Gasification for Advanced Biofuel Production

Chemical looping gasification is a promising biomass conversion technology that could produce sustainable liquid transportation fuels on a large scale to reduce fossil fuel dependency. The current paper examines the technical, economic, and environmental performance of a biomass-to-liquid (BtL) process based on chemical looping gasification and Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. Two biomass feedstocks, i.e., pine forest residues and wheat straw, are selected for assessing the complete BtL production chain. The results of process simulations showed that both biomass types are suitable gasification feedstocks, with an overall energy efficiency of 53% and 52% for pine residues and wheat straw, respectively. The economic results show that the breakeven selling prices (BESP) are €816 and €781 per m3 for the pine forest residues and wheat straw pellets, respectively. However, if low-grade excess heat valorisation and CO2 credits are considered, the BESPs could meet or become lower than the target value of €700 per m3, making the BtL plant competitive with other biofuel plants. The CO2 avoidance cost is estimated at €74.4/tCO2 for pine residues and €61.3/tCO2 for wheat straw, when replacing fossil fuels. The results of the life cycle assessment study showed that the produced biofuels fulfil the requirements of the EU Renewable Energy Directive II, achieving the reduction in greenhouse gases emissions of up to 79% without carbon capture and storage (CCS) and up to 264% with CCS compared to fossil fuels.

Renewable energy communities optimal design supported by an optimization model for investment in PV/wind capacity and renewable electricity sharing

The EU Renewable Energy Directive 2018/2001 (RED II) has unlocked the participation of local citizens and authorities in collective renewable energy projects through the concept of Renewable Energy Communities (REC). In this context, the present study proposes an optimization model to support REC's investment decisions on the renewable generation portfolio and operational electricity sharing management.The model presented follows an annualized investment optimization approach considering that one REC member can invest in additional renewable generation. A case study of a REC with three members is presented in a framework of four scenarios and results are discussed using the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) and the marginal realized price concepts. A sensitivity analysis is also performed to address the interannual variability of the solar and wind resources.In the base case scenario, which corresponds to the site-specific conditions of the investing REC member, an overall net revenue of 87 k€/year was computed. The sensitivity analysis for this scenario showed that the investment is more sensitive to the solar resource, with revenues changing between −3.3% and 0.1% in comparison with the average resource availability.This paper contributes to the existing literature by identifying the main drivers behind the optimal investment decision of a REC, which result from the relationship between the marginal realized price and the levelized cost of the electricity generated by each renewable technology. The results supported by the present model reinforce the benefits of RECs as enablers for the deployment of renewable generation, thus contributing to the decarbonization of the energy systems.

Upaya Kerja Sama Multilateral Indonesia dalam Menanggapi Kebijakan Red Ii Uni Eropa

Indonesia has the largest palm oil plantation industry and is the world's largest producer of palm oil. Palm oil commodities originating from Indonesia are exported to almost all continents with the highest consumers found in the Asian continent and the European Union region. The European Union as one of the major consumers of Indonesian palm oil in 2018 revised its policy to Renewable Energy Directive II (RED II) which reaped negative sentiment towards the Indonesian palm oil industry. Then, the Government of Indonesia responded to these negative issues through several diplomatic efforts, such as multilateral cooperation. This article discusses Indonesia's trade diplomacy activities to the European Union using multilateral cooperation. This research uses qualitative research methods with the concept of economic diplomacy The data used in this study was obtained using several data collection techniques, such as literature studies. These data are analyzed and discussed using the framework of economic diplomacy concepts to explain the economic diplomacy activities carried out by Indonesia to the European Union on its palm oil commodities by joining multilateral cooperation. The result of this study is that Indonesia in making efforts to maintain its palm oil follows several bilateral and multilateral cooperations such as its participation in CPOPC.

Nature-Based Solution to Man-Made Problems: Fostering the Uptake of Phytoremediation and Low-iluc Biofuels in the EU

Abstract Soil contamination represents a major global environmental threat. Only in the European Union, around 340.000 contaminated sites are inventoried. At the same time, the need to foster the uptake of sustainable biofuels to curb greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector is one of the pillars of the EU’s climate action to achieve the overarching goals set under the European Climate Law and the Renewable Energy Directive. Against this backdrop, nature-based solutions for soil remediation are increasingly being advocated as sustainable options to enhance soil biodiversity while addressing soil contamination in line with the UN Sustainable Development Goals and, in the EU, the European Green Deal and the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030. Among several nature-based soil remediation techniques, phytoremediation consists of the use of plants and their associated microbes to stabilise, degrade, volatilise and extract soil pollutants. Furthermore, the non-food biomass generated as a result of phytoremediation could provide a meaningful low Indirect Land Use Change (iluc) feedstock for the production of advanced biofuels to reduce climate change. This paper addresses the policy and legal background surrounding the uptake of phytoremediation and recovery of output materials focusing on existing roadblocks currently hampering the full-scale adoption of such a complex yet inherently circular value chain. The paper concludes that meaningful steps must yet be taken to properly embed nature-based soil remediation techniques, such as phytoremediation, in the current legal framework and to ensure social ownership of the same to maximise its environmental benefits.

Indonesia's Economic Diplomacy in Facing Red (Renewable Energy Directive) and European Union Palm Oil Policy

This study aims to examine Indonesia's economic diplomacy efforts in dealing with the Renewable Energy Directive (RED) and palm oil policies in the European Union. This economic diplomacy effort is a step to deal with the impact caused by policies implemented by the European Union. The method used is descriptive qualitative with data collection techniques in the form of literature review related to the problem under study. This literature includes books, journals, written reports, articles, news collections on the internet, and documents related to the object of research. Furthermore, the data analysis technique used is qualitative. The results found that in dealing with the policy, Indonesia used commercial diplomacy by cooperating with stakeholders to form FoKSBI, as well as making ISPO policies and suing the European Union regarding its claims

Forest protection in the EU's renewable energy directive and nature conservation legislation in light of the climate and biodiversity crisis – Identifying legal shortcomings and solutions

Forests ecosystems have an indispensable value for global climate and biodiversity protection. Alongside manifold other functions, forests ecosystems are important suppliers of raw materials in a post-fossil world. However, without effective legal restrictions, the increasing demand for woody biomass for energy production counteracts effective forest conservation in Europe and third countries. Against this background, this article assesses the governance effects of the EU Renewable Energy Directive and the EU nature conservation legislation, particularly the directives forming the Natura 2000 network, and the proposed Nature Restoration Law. To this end, a qualitative governance analysis is applied. In a first step the sustainability criteria of the Renewable Energy Directive are assessed regarding intra- and extraterritorial effects and their ability to avoid typical governance problems. Thereafter, to investigate achievable steering effects, EU nature conservation legislation is analysed. The legal analysis shows that typical governance problems reoccur, rendering the effectivity of the assessed command-and-control regulations too low to protect forest ecosystems in line with international climate and biodiversity targets. Only the proposed Nature Restoration Law might unfold a larger legal steering effect in the future, if a number of shortcomings are addressed. However, as typical governance problems can never be fully avoided, it remains necessary to reduce pressures on forest ecosystems by additional market-based instruments These instruments should be applied on European policy level to induce sufficiency in the private transport sector and in relation to consumption patterns for energy and food.

Implementing European Union Provisions and Enabling Frameworks for Renewable Energy Communities in Nine Countries: Progress, Delays, and Gaps

With the Clean Energy for all Europeans legislative package, the European Union (EU) aimed to put consumers “at the heart” of EU energy policy. The recast of the Renewable Energy Directive (RED II) acknowledged the importance of energy communities for the energy transition and introduced new provisions for renewable energy communities (RECs), empowering them to participate in the energy market. This article analyses the progress of transposing and implementing key provisions of the RED II that apply to RECs in nine European countries and focuses on timeliness and completeness of transposition. It comprises both a qualitative and quantitative assessment covering (1) the definition, rights, and market activities of RECs; (2) key elements of enabling frameworks; and (3) consideration of REC specificities in support schemes for renewable energy. The analysis shows considerable variation in transposition performance between the analysed countries. The authors investigate the reasons for this variation and relate them to findings of European implementation and compliance research. Key factors identified include actor-related and capacity-related factors, institutional fit, and characteristics of the RED II itself. Future research in this field needs multi-faceted avenues and should pay particular attention to the influence of national governments and incumbents, not only in the transposition process, but already in upstream policy formulation at the European level.

Photovoltaic-green roof energy communities can uphold the European Green Deal: Probabilistic cost-benefit analyses help discern economically convenient scenarios

The new roadmap of the European Union (EU), the European Green Deal, aims at tackling climate adaptation, energy, biodiversity, and pollution challenges. To contribute to such aim, the latest EU Renewable Energy Directive defines for the first time renewable energy communities. Among them, Photovoltaic-Green roof Energy Communities (PGECs) emerge as a potential option in urban areas. This paper investigates whether and under which conditions PGECs are capable to meet the objectives of the European Green Deal in an economically convenient manner. Since some conditions are context-specific, this research is showcased using a case study (Luxembourg). First, European legislation was reviewed to determine the suitable legal model for PGECs. Second, a systematic literature review helped identifying lifecycle costs and benefits of photovoltaic-green roofs and their value ranges. Third, a model for probabilistic social and private cost-benefit analyses was developed and tailored to Luxembourg. Lastly, Scenario Discovery was used to identify the ranges of input values leading to desirable net present values. Results show that PGECs can contribute to achieving multiple objectives of the European Green Deal in an economically convenient manner. From the societal perspective, PGECs are found to be economically convenient for any cost, benefit, and discount rate in the case study. From the private perspective, PGECs remain convenient in 62% of the scenarios, with green roofs’ installation cost and electricity generation benefit playing pivotal roles. This paper presents a rare combination of probabilistic cost-benefit analyses and scenario discovery, It supports policymakers designing incentive schemes for PGECs, and can be replicated in other countries.

GHG Savings Calculation: Switch from Electricity Production to Biomethane. Case Study

Carbon dioxide is one of the main components of greenhouse gases. The amount of anthropogenic CO2 emissions in the atmosphere reached 37.9 Gt, which is 60 % more than in 1990. The use of CO2 in the production of valuable products can help to reduce the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. Biomethane fuel production could be a successful solution in Latvia as well. The work includes a case study of a Latvian biogas production facility Agro Iecava with a switch from biogas to biomethane production. All calculations are made according to REDcert rules. For biofuel production the Plant uses 13 types of substrates, which is also reflected in the calculation. The work shows a step-by-step algorithm for research and analysis. The experience can be used at other biogas production stations, regardless of its location. The analysis of the Plant shows that switching to biomethane production saves up to 80.34 % of GHG emissions (with an estimated loss during transportation in the network of 1 %). In the worst-case scenario, this amount is 76.34 % (loss from transportation is 5 %), which is also above the minimum indicated in the Renewable Energy Directive.

The Role of Direct Air Capture in EU’s Decarbonisation and Associated Carbon Intensity for Synthetic Fuels Production

Direct air capture (DAC) is considered one of the mitigation strategies in most of the future scenarios trying to limit global temperature to 1.5 °C. Given the high expectations placed on DAC for future decarbonisation, this study presents an extensive review of DAC technologies, exploring a number of techno-economic aspects, including an updated collection of the current and planned DAC projects around the world. A dedicated analysis focused on the production of synthetic methane, methanol, and diesel from DAC and electrolytic hydrogen in the European Union (EU) is also performed, where the carbon footprint is analysed for different scenarios and energy sources. The results show that the maximum grid carbon intensity to obtain negative emissions with DAC is estimated at 468 gCO2e/kWh, which is compliant with most of the EU countries’ current grid mix. Using only photovoltaics (PV) and wind, negative emissions of at least −0.81 tCO2e/tCO2 captured can be achieved. The maximum grid intensities allowing a reduction of the synthetic fuels carbon footprint compared with their fossil-fuels counterparts range between 96 and 151 gCO2e/kWh. However, to comply with the Renewable Energy Directive II (REDII) sustainability criteria to produce renewable fuels of non-biological origin, the maximum stays between 30.2 to 38.8 gCO2e/kWh. Only when using PV and wind is the EU average able to comply with the REDII threshold for all scenarios and fuels, with fuel emissions ranging from 19.3 to 25.8 gCO2e/MJ. These results highlight the importance of using renewable energies for the production of synthetic fuels compliant with the EU regulations that can help reduce emissions from difficult-to-decarbonise sectors.

Analysis of Specific Greenhouse Gas Emissions Savings from Biogas Production Based on Agricultural Residues and Industrial By-Products

The aim of this study was to analyse specific greenhouse gas emissions savings for a variety of agricultural residues, industrial by-products, and municipal biowaste. One of the most viable alternatives to fossil fuels is bioenergy, particularly biogas produced by the anaerobic digestion of renewable feedstocks. The revised Renewable Energy Directive (D 2018/2001) recognizes that biogas production from agricultural residues, livestock production, and industrial by-products is an acknowledged greenhouse gas mitigation technology in cases where their use results in a certain level of specific greenhouse gas savings. This study delivered values for the maximum transport distance of agricultural residues and industrial by-products to achieve the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions-saving requirement defined by Directive 2018/2001. It analysed the greenhouse gas emissions reduction for numerous feedstocks for which Directive 2018/2001 has not defined the default and typical values but which could be used as sustainable substitutes for currently dominantly used maize silage in biogas production. The results obtained in this work define the maximum transport and distribution distance for which biogas produced from considered feedstocks achieved required specific greenhouse gas emissions savings (80%), compared with fossil fuel comparator. The obtained results can be used as the constraints in the optimisation of the biomass supply chains for the feedstocks considered in this work.

Examining the Czech Presidency’s Role in the Convergence of the EU’s Energy-Climate Agenda

The Czech presidency of the Council of the EU faced a challenging term, commencing just months after Russia invaded Ukraine. Its priorities were to maintain the unity of the European bloc against Moscow, manage the energy crisis, and adhere to the ambitious climate agenda. During its term, the Czech presidency significantly improved the EU՚s energy security by promoting energy solidarity, cooperation, and reaching key agreements on issues such as the windfall tax or reduction of gas demand. Although the climate policy remained in sight, the revisions of the Renewable Energy Directive and Energy Efficiency Directive not only lacked momentum and important commitments, such as an agreement on reducing energy demand, but also strong compulsory measures. Despite the Czech presidency’s prioritization of security of supply over ambitious climate goals, its overall successful performance in both areas has contributed to aligning energy and climate policies between Western and Eastern Europe in the long term.

THE ADVANCEMENT OF RENEWABLE ENERGY IN THE EUROPEAN UNION: AN EXAMINATION OF SUPPORT MEASURES

This study examines the development of renewable energy support mechanisms in the EU. It assesses the potential for their transformation in light of the formation of the European Energy Union in the context of the growing global energy crisis. As part of its long-term strategy to increase the share of renewable energy, the EU has set several ambitious targets, measures and legislative initiatives, such as Directive 2001/77/EC, which sets targets for 12 % of energy and 22 % of electricity from renewable sources by 2010, and the Renewable Energy Directive (RED II), which updates the RED I targets and provides for a share of renewable energy in final energy consumption of at least 32 % by 2030. Various direct and indirect mechanisms to support renewable energy sources were analysed. It is concluded that the EU’s commitment to increasing the share of renewable energy in the energy mix is consistent and ambitious. These initiatives demonstrate the EU’s commitment to addressing the urgent need for a low-carbon economy.

DETERMINANT EXPORT VOLUME OF CRUDE PALM OIL (CPO) IN INDONESIA AND MALAYSIA IN THE EUROPEAN UNION MARKET

Crude Palm Oil (CPO) is one of the leading export commodities of Indonesia and Malaysia. After India, the European Union has become the top Indonesian and Malaysian CPO export market share. However, Indonesian and Malaysian CPO exports indicate constraints on CPO exports to the European Union (E.U.). In addition, the European Union also issued a Renewable Energy Directive policy that can impact CPO exports. Therefore, this study is at 1) Describes the development of Indonesian and Malaysian CPO export volumes in the European Union from 1990 to 2019. 2) Analyze The determinants of Indonesian and Malaysian CPO export volumes in the EU Market from 1990 to 2019 3) Describe the impact of the Renewable Energy Directive (RED) policy on Indonesian and Malaysian CPO exports in the European Union Market. This study's data type is secondary data in an annual time series with a time range from 1990 to 2019. The study was analyzed descriptively, and the Regression Analysis was multiple. The results showed that the development of Indonesian and Malaysian CPO export volumes in the European Union fluctuated but tended to increase from 1990 to 2019. Indonesia's CPO export volume in the European Union significantly affects International CPO prices, real exchange rates, and RED Policies. In contrast, the volume of Malaysian CPO exports in the European Union significantly influences International CPO prices and real exchange rates. The RED policy positively influenced the volume of Indonesian and Malaysian CPO exports in the European Union before and after enacting the policy. In the future, it is necessary to increase the use of CPO in the country and develop palm oil derivative products to get priority and sustainability.

Dampak Implementasi Kebijakan Renewable Energy Directive II terhadap Hubungan Indonesia - Uni Eropa

This research will write down the impact of implementing the Renewable Energy Directive II policy issued by the European Union to regulate the use of renewable energy as a form of the European Union's commitment to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In the Renewable Energy Directive II Policy issued by the European Union, it is stated that palm oil causes deforestation or environmental damage. Indonesia, which has long established economic cooperation with the European Union, especially in the export-import of palm oil, as the world's largest producer of palm oil, feels discriminated against the policy issued. Indonesia gets the country's largest foreign exchange from exports of palm oil and its derivatives which will then have a major impact on the decline in imports of palm oil by the European Union after the issuance of this policy. This research question is "What is the impact of the implementation of the Renewable Energy Directive II policy on relations between Indonesia and the European Union?" to answer the questions in this study, researchers used the concept of International Political Economy by Robert Gilpin in explaining the results of this study. This study uses qualitative research methods using secondary data sources. The results of this study will answer the forms of tense relations between Indonesia and the European Union and what factors influence these tensions to occur. This research will also explain the beginning of the cooperation between Indonesia and the European Union and how the relationship was before and after the Renewable Energy Directive II policy was made.
 

Development prospects for energy communities in the EU identifying best practice and future opportunities using a morphological approach

The 2018/19 Clean Energy Package of the European Union introduced a wide range of policy measures to further advance the Energy Transition, with one focus being low-carbon, renewable energy (RE) to replace fossil-based sources. RE production is typically disaggregated locally, legally, and in terms of ownership of the production facilities. Moreover, RE production technologies are various, and so are their respective usage, investment schemes, investors, geographic and financial properties, and, as a result, their support measures. With a focus on the new regulatory framework of the Directive on the Internal Energy Market (IEMD) and the recast of the Renewable Energy Directive (RED II), we analyse best practice business models for Energy Communities (ECs). To capture the multitude of pluri-dimensional design perspectives for ECs we develop and employ a new morphological approach, i.e., a morphological box for ECs (https://kelso-institute-europe.de/projects/energy-communities). This approach enables researchers and policy makers to identify the constellations for participation models that best fit the new EU policy strategy and to show opportunities with regard to combinations underused or not at all exploited yet. Based on this assessment we formulate policy recommendations and suggestions for the further development of Energy Transition participation models in general and ECs in particular.

Can supply chain laws prevent deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Indonesia?

There is a new trend toward public supply chain-related laws which demand information from companies on imported products. The European Union's (EU) Renewable Energy Directive (RED) and Timber Regulation (EUTR) exemplify this new type of law. In both cases, companies have to prevent deforestation in their supply chains. The Democratic Republic of the Congo and Indonesia, both among those countries with the world's highest deforestation rates, support supply chain laws on paper, but there are serious implementation deficits in practice. Using a tripartite framework developed by Cashore and Stone, our study addresses this alleged contradiction and explains deficits inherent in the laws based on the analysis of policy documents, expert interviews and field research. We find that companies take advantage of opportunities to shift exports to less regulating countries. EU member states exercise their purchasing power too cautiously over intermediary (manufacturing) countries in the supply chain, especially China. Finally, despite possibilities of public action, sanctioning is largely left to the private sector.

Article: EU Species Protection Law and Wind Energy: Current Challenges and Danish Experiences

This article highlights certain challenges as regards the reconciliation between concerns of climate change, energy security and biodiversity protection, drawing on case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) and the Danish experiences regarding onshore wind energy installations. The EU species protection rules are by many perceived as an obstacle to wind energy development as also reflected in the 2022 Commission proposal to amend the Renewable Energy Directive. However, it is not evident that the proposal will solve the challenges of accommodating the strict direct species protection of, in particular, Annex IV species and birds against deliberate killing or disturbance as determined by the CJEU. The article suggests that rather than setting aside the general environmental impact assessment (EIA) and appropriate assessment requirements for Natura 2000 sites, there is a need to revisit the Birds and Habitats Directives, in particular as regards ‘deliberate killing or disturbance’ caused by non-intentional activities with a view to the population level as opposed to the individual specimen level. European Union, Species protection, Biodiversity, Renewables, Wind energy