Green hydrogen is a key energy carrier in the transition to a low-carbon economy, with significant potential to decarbonize multiple sectors. However, large-scale deployment in Europe faces challenges related to renewable electricity volatility, hydrogen certification complexities, and evolving legislative frameworks. This paper presents a techno-economic Mixed-Integer Linear Programming optimization model to evaluate the economic viability and the emission intensity of electrolyser systems within Europe’s energy landscape. The study assesses four distinct operational strategies under the Renewable Energy Directive II and its Delegated Acts: (i) static operation using grid mix-based electricity, (ii) static operation with 24/7 Carbon-Free Energy Power Purchase Agreements (CFE PPAs), (iii) flexible operation optimized for Day-Ahead Market prices, and (iv) flexible operation incorporating revenue stacking from hydrogen sales and power system ancillary services. The model is applied to a case study in Germany, revealing a positive association between profitability metrics (Net Present Value, Internal Rate of Return, Return on Investment, Levelized Cost of Hydrogen) and hydrogen’s emission intensity (Levelized CO 2 Emission Intensity of Hydrogen). Sensitivity analysis highlights how economic and environmental outcomes are influenced by system boundaries, offering valuable insights for policymakers and industry stakeholders. This study contributes to the advancement of the hydrogen economy by optimizing electrolysis strategies that balance profitability and hydrogen emission intensity while remaining consistent with European regulatory frameworks. • A MILP optimization model evaluates electrolysis strategies under EU RED II rules. • Four operating strategies balance hydrogen production profitability and sustainability. • Revenue-stacking with ancillary services enhances electrolyser economic performance. • Trade-offs exist between Net Present Value and carbon intensity in hydrogen production. • Flexibility in electrolyser operation optimizes market participation and grid balancing.

Renewable energy is a key driver of the sustainable energy transition. To accelerate deployment, the Renewable Energy Directive was amended by Directive (EU) 2023/2413, commonly referred to as ‘RED III’, which raised the Union’s renewable energy target and introduced territorial instruments such as coordinated mapping and renewables acceleration areas. This article examines the legal mechanisms of RED III that have a territorial impact and assesses their interaction with spatial-planning, asking how implementation reshapes the relationship between EU-level regulatory influence and Member State discretion. Utilising doctrinal legal research and concepts from spatial-planning scholarship, the article analyses how RED III operationalises these area-based planning instruments and links them to project authorisation. Lithuania is used as an illustrative implementation example. The findings suggest that RED III does not establish an EU spatial-planning system but strengthens the territorially oriented governance of renewables by connecting plan-level choices to permitting. At the same time, it leaves Member States with substantial discretion over legal form and integration into national planning hierarchies. The article concludes that RED III is a turning point in a specific sense: it makes territorial steering a more explicit and legally structured component of EU renewables governance, without harmonising national spatial planning systems.

ABSTRACT Vertical farms are often promoted as environmentally friendly options; however, evidence on the environmental performance of commercial facilities is limited, particularly within Mediterranean climates. This study reports a cradle‐to‐grave life cycle assessment (LCA) of a large‐scale commercial vertical farm producing lettuce in the Lombardy region of northern Italy. The functional unit was defined as 1 kg of edible lettuce. Environmental impacts were assessed applying the Environmental Footprint (EF) 3.1 characterization method across nine impact categories: climate change, acidification, terrestrial ecotoxicity, freshwater eutrophication, marine eutrophication, land use, water use, and abiotic depletion of fossil and mineral resources. The current operational configuration, based on biomethane‐fueled combined heat and power (CHP) cogeneration, was evaluated against four alternative energy pathways: the Italian national electricity grid, natural gas cogeneration, renewable electricity procurement, and biomethane production from alternative feedstock compositions. The biomethane CHP scenario yielded a climate change impact of 3.02 kg CO 2 ‐eq per kg of edible lettuce, compared to 6.16 kg CO 2 ‐eq per kg under natural gas cogeneration and 6.06 kg CO 2 ‐eq per kg under the Italian grid mix. Minimum climate change impact was obtained under fully renewable electricity supply, at 1.38 kg CO 2 ‐eq per kg. Biomethane performance showed marked sensitivity to feedstock composition, with climate change impacts ranging from 3.02 to 6.44 kg CO 2 ‐eq per kg depending on organic residue and manure proportions. Although biomethane reduced climate change impacts relative to fossil‐based configurations, pronounced trade‐offs were identified in freshwater eutrophication and terrestrial ecotoxicity, attributable to upstream feedstock handling and digestate management. Electricity consumption for lighting, cooling, and dehumidification constituted the dominant environmental hotspot across all scenarios, while infrastructure embodied impacts represented a secondary yet substantial contributor to fossil and mineral resource depletion. Collectively, these results establish energy sourcing as the principal determinant of environmental performance in Mediterranean vertical farming, with all evaluated pathways directly actionable under the European Renewable Energy Directive (RED II, Directive (EU) 2018/2001). Direct electrification with verified low‐carbon electricity delivered the greatest environmental improvements across impact categories. Where biomethane‐based cogeneration is maintained, realizing consistent environmental benefits requires careful feedstock selection, stringent methane‐loss control, and robust digestate management practices. Mitigating infrastructure‐related burdens additionally demands targeted design optimization, responsible material procurement, and appropriate end‐of‐life management strategies.

This qualitative literature review examines the paradoxical treatment of palm oil in international trade policy, where the most land-efficient and productive vegetable oil faces disproportionate regulatory scrutiny compared to less efficient alternatives. Through thematic analysis of peer-reviewed literature published between 2020 and 2025, this study synthesizes evidence demonstrating palm oil’s superior biophysical characteristics—including yields of 3.3-4.0 tons per hectare (8-10 times higher than soybean, rapeseed, or sunflower) and significant carbon sequestration capacity of 64.5 tons CO2/ha/year—while revealing how environmental narratives mask protectionist motivations. The analysis critically evaluates the European Union’s Renewable Energy Directive II (RED II) as a discriminatory instrument that selectively classifies palm oil as “high ILUC-risk” while exempting European-produced oilseeds, despite objective life cycle assessment data indicating palm oil’s lower overall environmental impact. Drawing on World Trade Organization dispute proceedings (DS593, DS600) and extensive empirical research, this review demonstrates that international palm oil discrimination constitutes environmental hypocrisy, driven primarily by economic interests protecting domestic farmers in importing countries rather than genuine sustainability concerns. The study concludes with policy recommendations calling for the enforcement of strict, crop-neutral trade standards based on land-use efficiency to dismantle green neocolonialism, alongside the establishment of a transnational framework that institutionalizes scientific objectivity in global vegetable oil governance.

This paper explores the application of the XGBoost machine learning model for forecasting the hourly thermal demand in District Heating Systems, aligning with the European Union’s ambitious sustainability targets as outlined in the Renewable Energy Directive (RED) and the Energy Efficiency Directive (EED). Accurate forecasts of thermal demand are crucial for enhancing the efficiency of district heating systems through the integration of renewable energy sources and the adoption of waste heat recovery, thereby contributing significantly to achieving climate neutrality by the year 2050. This study presents a dual approach to forecasting: at the individual building level, and at an aggregated level by considering the average characteristics of the served building stock. Through a comprehensive case study of the Turin district heating system (Italy), which comprises hourly data from approximately 200 heat exchange substations across nine heating seasons, this research evaluates the comparative effectiveness of different forecasting approaches in terms of prediction accuracy and computational efficiency. The findings aim to guide district heating operators and planners in selecting the most suitable forecasting approach based on available input information, desired accuracy, and computational constraints, contributing to the strategic planning and development of sustainable and efficient district heating systems. Key words. District Heating Systems (DHS), XGBoost model, Thermal Demand Forecasting, Renewable Energy Integration

The Renewable Energy Directive II (RED II) and the European Union Deforestation Regulation (EUDR) are the European Union’s primary policy instruments for achieving energy transition targets, sustainability standards, and emission-reductions. These regulations restrict the use of palm oil as a feedstock for biodiesel and tighten traceability requirements for deforestation-free products, thereby potentially affecting Indonesia’s export performance. This study aims to analyze changes in share and market concentration of Indonesia’s palm oil exports (HS 151100) in four major EU destination countries, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, and Germany, following the implementation of RED II and the early phase of EUDR implementation. This research employed time series data from 2011 to 2024, divided into two periods: seven years before the policy implementation and seven years representing the early phase of RED II (2019-2024). However, the data remain limited for comprehensively assessing the impact of the EUDR, as they only cover the 2023-2024 period. The methods used include the Market Share Index (MSI), the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI), and a two-mean difference test using a paired sample t-test. The results show a significant decline in Indonesia’s market share in three main countries, Netherlands, Italy, and Spain following the implementation of the policies, while Germany remains relatively stable. The HHI value decreased from 0.016 to 0.06, indicating a shift in market structure from a moderately concentrated market to a more differentiated oligopoly market. This change indicates that Indonesia has undertaken market diversification in response to increasing non-tariff barriers and policy risks imposed by the European Union.

This thesis examines how the sustainability discourse in the European Green Deal (EGD) and Renewable Energy Directive II (RED II) policies reproduce postcolonial relations of domination in the palm oil trade between the European Union and Indonesia. Using a postcolonial approach, especially Edward Said’s thougths on orientalism, shows that the sustainability narrative built by the European Union is not neutral, but a hegemonic narrative with internal economic interests that strengthen the position of the West / Global North over East / Global South. Through discourse analysis of the EGD and RED II, it is found that the EU frames palm oil as a high-risk commodity by ignoring the social reality of producer countries. This indicates a hidden discriminatory practice in the sustainability discourse. This finding confirms that there is an active discourse in the EGD, which perpetuates global inequality, and strengthens the relations of domination between the European Union and Indonesia in the postcolonial era.

This article provides a detailed comparative analysis of the transposition and implementation of the Renewable Energy Directives II and III (RED II and RED III), REPowerEU Plan, and the ‘Fit for 55’ package in France, Italy, and Germany. The analysis highlights the objectives, key legislative provisions, and national-scale achievements, challenges, advantages, and disadvantages—including implications for investment conditions and renewable energy financing mechanisms—associated with these pivotal European Union legislative frameworks, which, to a certain extent, induced a paradigm shift with varying degrees of impact in every Member State. The work is divided into four parts that follow this brief introductory outline of the problem. The introduction presents legal developments in renewable energy law in the European Union. The second part offers a comprehensive and in-depth examination of the European Union’s renewable energy regulatory framework and research gaps that hinder doctrinal tensions within the EU’s renewable energy legislative framework. In the third part, we analyze the transposition and implementation of each mentioned directive in the selected countries. The last part highlights commonalities, divergences, challenges, best practices, and lessons learned from each nation’s approach. This comparative analysis predicts that implementation success is inversely linked to administrative divergence, with France’s centralized legal system facilitating effective bureaucratic streamlining and higher predicted deployment, while the fragmented governance structures of Germany and Italy serve as structural impediments that critically undermine the EU’s acceleration mandate.

• Policy development process of Renewable energy community in Europe and Italy. • Developed the latest Italian renewable energy community database. • Established the Key Performance Indicators framework of renewable energy community. • Through analysis of detailed database, explored the quantities parameters relationship. 2050 Carbon emissions have become an urgent problem for all the countries across EU. Conserving renewable energy in buildings has emerged as one of the primary strategies for reducing the greenhouse gases. Developing and spread self-sufficient energy communities integrated with renewable energy source has emerged as more impacting approach for lowering the impact of the building sector. The latest Renewable Energy Directive (RED) III published in October 2023, increased European Union’s ambition for renewable energy transition. Italy keeps updating its regulations following the directive and aims to cover 55.4% of its gross final electricity consumption with renewable energy by 2030. The research aims at analyzing the policy trajectory, energy community transition status and potential challenge through policy analysis and case studies analysis. This research illustrated the process of the policy and legislation refining and regulating renewable energy communities (RECs) and compared the difference from EU to Italy. RECs database, key performance indicators configuration and data analysis were carried out to systematically conclude the REC developing status. This work presents in a unique way the state of the art of the REC, with a focus on the Italian context, and serves as a reference point that captures the current status and outlines possible future developments. Driven by incentive policies, approximately 55% of RECs in Italy are located in small municipalities with populations under 5,000. Among them, only 26.4% are project-specific RECs focused on individual buildings or energy systems. Therefore, both a general REC database and a detailed project-level database are established in this study. Through database comparison, eight key performance indicators were collected and analyzed to depict the typical RECs status in order to support policymakers and stakeholders to revise and ameliorate standards and procedures to promote and spread the transition towards renewable energy communities.

The handling of WTO disputes DS593 (Indonesia vs. the European Union) and DS600 (Malaysia vs. the European Union) concerning the EU’s Renewable Energy Directive II (RED II) demonstrates the strategic use of Dispute Settlement Understanding (DSU) procedures in managing institutional risk and ensuring jurisprudential coherence amid the Appellate Body impasse. Both disputes focused on allegations of de facto discrimination in the treatment of palm oil-based biofuels under TBT Article 2.1 and GATT Article III:4. The appointment of identical Panelists under DSU Article 9.3 ensured consistency in findings—acknowledging the legitimacy of the EU’s environmental objectives under GATT Articles XX(b) and XX(g), while concluding that their implementation failed the procedural fairness standards of the GATT Article XX chapeau due to arbitrary administration. Moreover, Indonesia’s use of DSU Article 12.12 to delay the DS593 Panel report until after DS600’s publication illustrates the tactical use of procedural rights to maximize political and legal leverage. These findings highlight both the procedural sophistication of developing countries in WTO litigation and the ongoing tension between environmental legitimacy and equitable trade governance.

This study aims to analyze the factors influencing Indonesia’s crude palm oil (CPO) exports to the European Union during the 2013–2023 period. The research gap arises because most previous studies focused primarily on price and exchange rate factors without considering the impact of the European Union’s environmental regulations on CPO trade. To address potential endogeneity in world CPO prices, this study employs the Instrumental Variable Two-Stage Least Squares (IV/2SLS) approach, using rapeseed oil prices as an instrument. The independent variables include world CPO prices, the Rupiah–US Dollar exchange rate, the European Union Industrial Production Index (IPI), and the Renewable Energy Directive II (RED II) policy. The results reveal that world CPO prices have a positive and significant effect on Indonesia’s CPO exports to the European Union, while the exchange rate and IPI have no significant impact. Meanwhile, the RED II policy has a significant negative effect, reducing Indonesia’s CPO export value by nearly 98% compared to the period before the policy implementation. This study contributes empirically to the international trade literature by demonstrating that the European Union’s renewable energy policy has transformed into a form of green protectionism. In practical terms, the findings highlight the importance of downstream industry development, export market diversification, and strengthening trade diplomacy as key strategies for Indonesia to adapt to increasingly stringent global environmental regulations.

Second-, third-, and fourth-generation biofuels represent an important response to the challenges of clean energy supply and climate change. In this context, the Horizon 2020 “TO-SYN-FUEL” project aimed to produce advanced biofuels together with phosphorus from municipal wastewater sludge through a combination of technologies including a Thermo-Catalytic Reforming system, Pressure Swing Adsorption for hydrogen separation, Hydrodeoxygenation, and biochar gasification for phosphorous recovery. This article presents the environmental performance results of the demonstrator installed in Hohenberg (Germany), with a capacity of 500 kg per hour of dried sewage sludge. In addition, four alternative scenarios are assessed, differing in the source of additional thermal energy used for sludge drying: natural gas, biogas, heat pump, and a hybrid solar greenhouse. The environmental performance of these scenarios is then compared with that of conventional fuel. The comparative study of these scenarios demonstrates that the biofuel obtained through wood gasification complies with the Renewable Energy Directive, while natural gas remains the least sustainable option. Heat pumps, biogas, and greenhouse drying emerge as promising alternatives to align biofuel production with EU sustainability targets. Phosphorus recovery from sewage sludge ash proves essential for compliance, offering clear environmental benefits. Although sewage sludge is challenging due to its high water content, it represents a valuable feedstock whose sustainable management can enhance both energy recovery and nutrient recycling.

Certification schemes are emerging globally to establish emissions credentials for hydrogen. In 2023, the European Union's (EU) delegated regulations supplementing the Renewable Energy Directive II (RED II) codified when on-grid renewable electricity used in electrolytic production can be categorised as ‘renewables based’. This determines which hydrogen is eligible towards EU climate targets, and could impact industry development. While prior analyses have focused on implications for EU producers, the EU's expected hydrogen demand means this policy will affect international exporters. The reliance of RED II rules on electricity market features such as bidding zones may create challenges for certification alignment in overseas electricity markets. We investigate the implications of misaligned hydrogen certification by considering the case of Australian exports to the EU. Our analytical framework links a techno-economic cost model with a simulation model to explore two scenarios: 1) when only Australian off-grid electricity is recognised as renewables-based, and 2) when Australian renewable electricity used in grid-connected electrolysis is recognised as creating renewables-based hydrogen. We find that on-grid could be cheaper in the near-term, but off-grid is consistently cheaper in the longer term (2030–2040). Certification misalignment is unlikely to affect cost-competitiveness in later years, but could affect early industry development. • Misaligned hydrogen certification could reduce export cost competitiveness. • We analyse misalignment impacts of ‘renewables based’ electricity definitions. • Technoeconomic modelling compares on-grid and off-grid Australian exports to EU. • Off-grid hydrogen is more cost-competitive than on-grid in the longer term. • In this case, stringent certification does not hamper market development.

The European Commission’s revised Renewable Energy Directive (RED) establishes compulsory targets for the integration of renewable sources in the heating and cooling sector. We spoke to Joana Fernandes about the work of the REDI4HEAT project in assessing how Member States are tackling this issue and moving towards climate neutrality.

The aviation industry and policymakers are advocating Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAF) as one of the main pillars for making the aviation industry sustainable. However, regulatory frameworks like CORSIA and the EU Renewable Energy Directive often exclude the climate impact from in-flight non-CO2 emissions (e.g., NOx, H2O, and soot emissions), which is important in determining the effect of SAF in reducing the climate impact of aviation. To bridge this gap, we evaluate the total global warming effects of SAF from a well-to-wake analysis, which includes the climate effects from CO2 emissions of the well-to-wake combined with the non-CO2 emissions of the pump-to-wake (i.e., inflight). We quantify the climate impact of NOx, H2O and contrails and convert them to a CO2 equivalence (CO2e) factor based on a climate metric, for instance, the Average Temperature Response over a given time horizon (i.e., 20, 50 and 100 years). The resulting well-to-wake CO2e values for SAF vary from about 150 to 250 g/MJ, depending on the specific fuel pathways. Our analysis shows that the maximum reduction in CO2e emissions when using SAF is less than 50% compared to conventional jet fuel, mainly due to the inflight NOx and contrail effects.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-13445-x.

The primary goal of this research is to investigate the effect of the European Union's Renewable Energy Directive (RED) on the financial performance and overall value of palm oil businesses in Indonesia. Since this directive has established substantial non-tariff hurdles and generated market instability for these companies, a thorough examination of its direct impacts is required. This article confronts the issue by examining the influence external factors, such as macroeconomic conditions and export levels, alongside internal corporate strategies like risk management and sustainability reporting, on the overall value of a company. The research constructs and validates a model to determine how sustainability management can be utilized as a strategic instrument for reducing policy-related risks and improving corporate performance. This study adopts a quantitative approach and applies Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) as the method for data analysis. The sample for the study was composed of 11 palm oil companies traded on the Indonesian Stock Exchange, for which comprehensive annual report data were available for the 2019-2023 period. These companies in the name of stock codes are specifically: AALI, ANJT, DSNG, BWPT, LSIP, PALM, SIMP, SGRO, SSMS, SMAR, and TBLA. The results of the analysis show that a company's value is significantly and positively influenced by macroeconomic factors, palm oil exports, and risk management practices. Of critical importance, the study identified environmental sustainability management as a key moderating factor, which amplifies the beneficial effects that both export activities and risk management have on company value. Transparent sustainability integration practices are essential to building resilience and driving long-term value.

Advanced biomethane potential from local sources in Italy.

The European Union (EU) has set ambitious targets to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and mitigate climate change. Biofuels are a key component in achieving these goals, but inaccurate GHG emissions metrics can lead to ineffective policies. Accurate metrics are essential for guiding investments in the biofuels sector, driving innovation, and maintaining public support for EU climate policies. This study proposes an update of the GHG emission savings metrics for liquid biofuels pathways, incorporating the latest technological developments, updated input data, and recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change guidelines. The results show a decreasing trend in GHG emissions, mainly due to improvements in agricultural management, technological advancements, and changes in energy inputs and agro-inputs. The updated GHG emission values provide a comprehensive framework for assessing the climate change impacts of biofuel production in the EU. An uncertainty analysis highlights the variability within each pathway and the numerous sources contributing to it. This study informs policy decisions and supports the development of a sustainable and climate-friendly bioenergy sector in the EU. The updated metrics can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of biofuels production pathways and support the transition to a low-carbon economy. By providing a robust approach for assessing biofuels' carbon footprint, this study contributes to the EU's climate change mitigation strategy and decarbonisation goals, supporting a more sustainable future and helping to achieve the EU's ambitious targets. The study's findings are crucial for ensuring that biofuels play a positive role in reducing GHG emissions and mitigating climate change. • Updated GHG emissions of liquid biofuels from Annex V RED II. • Update covering new inputs data, pathways, and impact assessment methodology. • Main changes linked to the update of the soil N 2 O emissions: general decreasing trend. • Uncertainty matters: more than 20 % due to both data and impact assessment method. • Updated calculations do not significantly deviate from the previous results.

Renewable energy communities (RECs) are increasingly recognized as pivotal instruments in the global energy transition, offering decentralized, participatory, and sustainable solutions for energy management, specifically regarding energy production and consumption. The present review provides a comprehensive examination of the REC concept, tracing its regulatory evolution, particularly within the European Union through the renewable energy directives (RED II and RED III) and by analyzing its practical implementation across various countries. This paper explores the diverse technologies integrated into REC projects, such as photovoltaic systems, wind turbines, biogas, hydroelectric, and storage solutions, while also considering the socioeconomic frameworks, management models, and local engagement strategies that underpin their success. Key case studies from Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia illustrate the various approaches, challenges, and outcomes of REC initiatives in different geographic and policy contexts. The analysis also highlights barriers to implementing RECs, including regulatory uncertainty and market integration issues, and identifies the best practices and policies that support REC scalability. By synthesizing current trends and lessons learned, this review aims to inform policymakers, researchers, and practitioners about the transformative role of RECs in achieving decarbonization goals and accomplishing resilient energy systems.

Abstract Soybean products play an important role in Argentina's bioeconomy. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from soybean byproducts have been widely assessed to meet sustainability requirements for soybean oil biodiesel, especially by decision makers in the private and public sectors, in response to growing EU and USA market demands. Previous studies have focused primarily on GHG emissions from soybean cultivation and biodiesel production but not on the main byproducts like soy oil and meal. Over the past 15 years, we have participated in these calculations, with methods certified by independent verification bodies. Using real field data, this study presents the total GHG emissions of Argentina's main soybean products taking into account agriculture, biorefinery, and distribution stages and following EU Renewable Energy Directives I and II (EU RED I and II). The aim of the study was to assess the GHG emissions of Argentina's soybean‐producing chain through an integrated life cycle approach, applying mass and energy allocation methods. The results indicate that GHG emissions from soybean cultivation ranged from 186 to 266 kgCO2eq per ton of dry soybean, and from 9 to 13 gCO2eq per MJ of biodiesel. The highest emissions were associated with crop residues, agrochemical production, and fuel use. Over 50% of emissions in soybean farming were attributed to soil N2O, mainly from crop residues, according to the Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Technologies (GREET) model. Emissions from soybean oil production were estimated at 149.72 kgCO2eq per ton of oil, consistent with previous studies. For soybean meal production, emissions resulted in 73.57 kgCO2eq per ton of meal, with 66.1% attributed to natural gas consumption. This study provides a comprehensive evaluation of GHG emissions across the soybean production chain. Its results can support decision making for emission reductions in key stages of the process.