Removal Efficiencies Of Pharmaceuticals And Personal Care Products Research Articles

Simultaneous degradation and rejection of PPCPs from wastewater in a 3DEO-FO-RO process

This study established a novel three-dimensional electrochemical oxidation coupled with forward osmosis and reverse osmosis (3DEO-FO-RO) system with the purpose to achieve simultaneous degradation and rejection of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in wastewater. 18 frequently detected PPCPs were selected as the target pollutants to prepare the synthetic wastewater with a concentration of 200 μg/L for each pollutant. Ti/IrO2–Ta2O5–SnO2 mesh anode, titanium mesh cathode and Sn–Sb–Bi/γ-Al2O3 particles electrodes were integrated in the 3DEO-FO reactor. Experimental results demonstrated that degradation efficiency exceeding 98.5 % and rejection exceeding 99.4 % for each PPCP were achieved simultaneously in the 3DEO-FO-RO processes at a current density of 1 mA/cm2 after 8 h treatment. Despite variations in applied current density, the 3DEO-FO-RO processes exhibited superior PPCPs removal efficiencies, particularly for refractory compounds, compared to the 2DEO-FO-RO processes. Increased hydroxyl radical (·OH) generation in the 3D reactor was considered to be responsible for the excellent performance. Furthermore, results derived from ultraviolet (UV) absorption spectra and fluorescence excitation-emission matrix (EEM) spectra provided additional validation for the effective removal of PPCPs in the 3DEO-FO-RO processes, along with evidence indicating the decomposition of PPCPs into smaller constituents. Ultimately, the 3DEO-FO-RO process demonstrated its capacity in removing PPCPs from actual secondary effluent from a wastewater treatment plant. This integrated system coupling 3D EO with FO-RO membranes can provide an efficient approach for simultaneous degradation and rejection of trace contaminants for wastewater reuse.

Pharmaceuticals as Emerging Pollutants in the Reclaimed Wastewater Used in Irrigation and Their Effects on Plants, Soils, and Groundwater

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) were investigated in five wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), groundwater, irrigated soils, and plants in Amman and Al-Balqa governorates in Jordan. PPCPs were extracted from water samples by solid-phase extraction (SPE) and analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC–MS/MS). Carbamazepine, ciprofloxacin, ceftiofur, diclofenac, erythromycin, lincomycin, ofloxacin, pyrimthamine, spiramycin, sulfamethoxazole, sulfapyridine, testosterone, trimethoprim, and thiamphenicol were detected in all raw wastewaters in μg/L, whereas 45 PPCPs were below the detection limits (<0.02 μg/L) in all samples. Na`ur and Abu Nuseir WWTPs showed high PPCPs removal efficiencies in comparison with AL-Baqa`a, Salt, and Fuhais-Mahis WWTPs. Boqorreya spring showed signs of contamination by Salt WWTP effluents as a result of mixing. Irrigation with effluents showed higher carbamazepine concentrations in soils at the top soil layers (0 to 20 cm) in all farms than its concentrations at the root zone (20 to 40 cm) by using drip irrigation system with various plants. In plants, carbamazepine concentration was only detected in high concentration level in mint leaves. In the same farm, diclofenac concentration was detected only in olives and not in twigs and leaves, indicating a high rate of plant uptake especially during the olive’s growth period. Furthermore, plant fruits, leaves, and stems left on the farm after harvesting are generally consumed by cattle, which means entering the food chain of humans.

Occurrence, seasonal variation, mass loading and fate of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in sewage treatment plants in cities of upper Ganges bank, India

The data on the environmental concentration of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) is hardly investigated for major cities of the upper Ganges basin, India. In this study, fifteen PPCPs were analyzed in four sewage treatment plants (STPs) of Haridwar and Rishikesh cities located at the bank of River Ganges, India. Eleven PPCPs were detected with an average total concentration of 147.20 ng L−1 in influent, 105.06 ng L−1 in the effluent, and 87.75 ng kg−1 in sludge from STPs. The average concentration (ng L−1) of individual PPCPs was recorded highest for Caffeine (695.86) followed by, ibuprofen (387.53), acetaminophen (152.81), triclosan (98.93), tetracycline (75.39), ketoprofen (69.47), DEET (46.59), salicylic acid (45.02), erythromycin (32.98), ciprofloxacin (20.16) and metoprolol (13.61) at STPs inlets. Results suggested a spatial and seasonal variation in PPCPs loads in influent, effluent and sludge in STPs studied. The overall PPCPs removal efficiencies of STPs were recorded in the ranges of −154–63%. The total mass load of PPCPs studied ranged between 0.02 and 448.64 mg/d/1000 population. This study concluded that STPs are an active source of PPCPs in the River Ganges, which may pose a grave threat to the health of the river ecosystem and human population.

Assessing the efficiency of constructed wetlands in removing PPCPs from treated wastewater and mitigating the ecotoxicological impacts.

The prevalence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in municipal wastewater has led to increased concerns about their impact on both human health and ecosystem. The constructed wetlands have been recognized as one of the cost-effective and green mitigation approaches to remove the PPCPs in the municipal wastewater. In this study, the effectiveness of a full scale constructed wetlands treatment system (CCWTs) in removing the 36 PPCPs was investigated. The load mass of PPCPs discharged by the wastewater treatment plant into the CCWTs was calculated. Removal efficiencies of PPCPs were evaluated based on physico-chemical properties such as octanol-water partition coefficient (Log kow), molecular weight (MW, g mol-1) and the acid dissociation constant (pKa). The CCWTs are especially efficient in removing azithromycin, sertraline, tolfenamic acid, and diphenhydramine with removing efficiency >88%. However, the removal efficiencies of PPCPs in CCWTs exhibit a large variability, depending on physical and chemical properties of the molecules, with 4.7-96.7% for antibiotics, 5-86% for antidepressant and antiseizure drugs, 3.5-88% for NSAIDs, 29-77% for β-blockers and statins and 5.5-94% for other types of PPCPs. In addition, the environmental risk assessment showed that majority of the PPCPs (excluding sulfamethoxazole) in the effluent yielded low aquatic risk (risk quotient, RQ≤0.1) due to the efficiency of CCWTs. The toxicity index scores were calculated by integration of the predicted and available toxicological hazard data into the prioritization ranking algorithm through Toxicological Prioritization Index (ToxPi).

SnO2@ZnS photocatalyst with enhanced photocatalytic activity for the degradation of selected pharmaceuticals and personal care products in model wastewater

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are a new class of water contaminants that need to be effectively removed. In this work, SnO2 is involved in enhancing the photocatalytic activity of ZnS-bearing waste for the photodegradation of selected PPCPs. The SnO2@ZnS photocatalysts with various SnO2:ZnS ratios were synthesized by a one-step hydrothermal route. The results of physicochemical characterization reveal the successful formation of SnO2@ZnS photocatalyst. The photocatalytic activities of SnO2@ZnS photocatalysts are evaluated for the degradation of selected PPCPs: metoprolol (beta-blocker), carbamazepine (antiepileptic), acetaminophen (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug), and triclosan (antimicrobial). As a result, 70% of acetaminophen, 40% of carbamazepine, 67% of metoprolol, and 40% of triclosan are degraded by SnO2@ZnS photocatalysts. Such discrepancy in the photocatalytic degradation of PPCPs is stemmed from different physicochemical properties of the photocatalysts, chemical structures of PPCPs, and interactions between the PPCP molecules and the photocatalyst surface. To gain more insights into the different photocatalytic removal efficiencies of PPCPs, the adsorption affinities of PPCPs and water molecules to the predominant crystal planes of SnO2 (011) and ZnS (111) are computationally estimated. It is found that hydrated PPCPs are preferably adsorbed on the surface of SnO2 rather than on the surface of ZnS, and the SnO2@ZnS photocatalysts show a better adsorption affinity to PPCPs than individual SnO2 or ZnS. This study demonstrates a simple route to develop low-cost photocatalysts for the efficient removal of PPCPs by utilizing zinc sulfide-bearing industrial waste.

Fate of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in a wastewater treatment plant with parallel secondary wastewater treatment train

Seasonal variations in the concentrations and fate of 20 selected pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) were investigated over one year in a wastewater treatment plant in New Zealand, which relies on a membrane bioreactor (MBR) and Bardenpho as parallel processes for its secondary treatment. Results showed that all of the monitored PPCPs were detected in the wastewater influent. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) and caffeine were predominant in the influent, whereas in the effluent, β-blockers and benzotriazole were present at significant concentrations. Total PPCPs' concentration in the influent was found to be 130 μg/L. Average removal efficiency was found to be ≥ 99% for acetaminophen, caffeine, TCEP, naproxen, and ibuprofen, whereas <50% of trimethoprim, metoprolol, and benzotriazole were removed. Contrary to the existing literature, no significant differences were found in the removal of PPCPs through MBR and Bardenpho processes, hinting that optimally operated Bardenpho can be equally effective in the removal of emerging contaminants as MBR. The occurrence and removal efficiencies of PPCPs were found to exhibit significant seasonal variations, with the highest influent concentrations of PPCPs reported in autumn and winter. Heavy rainfall had an insignificant impact on PPCPs' removal efficiencies although it resulted in much-diluted concentrations of PPCPs in the influent. Spearman's correlation analysis showed significant correlations between PPCPs' mass loads in the influent, wastewater quality parameters, and environmental factors. It was also found that, except sulfamethoxazole, ecotoxicity risks were minimal for the rest of the monitored PPCPs in wastewater effluent.

Influence of CNT-rGO composite structures on their permeability and selectivity for membrane water treatment

In this study, flake-like reduced graphene oxide (rGO) was integrated with filamentous carbon nanotube (CNT) in different ways to prepare CNT-rGO composite membranes with three distinctive types of nanostructures. These membranes were further assessed at bench scale to determine the relationship between nanocomposite structure and membrane performance, including clean water permeability, removal efficiencies for pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCP), and resistance to organic fouling. Among the three types of prepared membranes, the membrane with CNT evenly distributed in the rGO layer outperformed other membranes in terms of PPCP removal efficiencies (76–100%), clean water permeability (4454Lm−2h−1bar−1), and antifouling property. Further membrane characterization using scanning electron microscopy and other analytical techniques revealed that the outstanding performance of this membrane resulted from the open CNT-rGO nanostructure that was beneficial for water permeation, PPCP adsorption, and membrane fouling reduction. Overall, these results demonstrated that, under the condition of similar compositions and surface properties, the nanostructures of CNT-rGO membranes significantly influenced membrane performance. Therefore, it is feasible to manipulate the nanostructures of CNT-rGO composite membranes to achieve high clean membrane permeability, outstanding antifouling property, and efficient contaminant removal.

Occurrence, removal and environmental risk assessment of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in rural wastewater treatment wetlands

Rural communities in central and eastern Europe usually use constructed wetlands (CWs) to treat domestic wastewater. Effluents from these systems are regularly discharged to receiving water, resulting in a potential transfer of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) from sewage to the aquatic environment. In this study, the seasonal occurrence, removal and risk assessment of 32 multi-class PPCPs were investigated in three CWs from the village of south Bohemia, Czech Republic. Among the PPCPs considered, 25 compounds were detected in sewage influent, and ibuprofen, caffeine and paracetamol were the most commonly detected PPCPs. The removal efficiencies of PPCPs in the rural CWs exhibited large variability with 11–100% for anti-inflammatories, 37–99% for β-blockers and 18–95% for diuretics. The statistical results revealed significant correlations between removal efficiencies of six PPCPs and conventional water quality parameters. The ecotoxicological assessment study revealed that most of the PPCPs (except ibuprofen) in the effluent yielded low aquatic risk. This study suggested that constructed wetlands could be effective for removing PPCPs and reducing environmental risk of PPCPs discharged from rural communities into surface water systems.

Removal of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products during Water Recycling: Microbial Community Structure and Effects of Substrate Concentration

Many pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) have been shown to be biotransformed in water treatment systems. However, little research exists on the effect of initial PPCP concentration on PPCP biotransformation or on the microbial communities treating impacted water. In this study, biological PPCP removal at various concentrations was assessed using laboratory columns inoculated with wastewater treatment plant effluent. Pyrosequencing was used to examine microbial communities in the columns and in soil from a soil aquifer treatment (SAT; a method of water treatment prior to reuse) site. Laboratory columns were supplied with different concentrations (0.25, 10, 100, or 1,000 μg liter(-1)) of each of 15 PPCPs. Five PPCPs (4-isopropyl-3-methylphenol [biosol], p-chloro-m-xylenol, gemfibrozil, ketoprofen, and phenytoin) were not removed at any tested concentrations. Two PPCPs (naproxen and triclosan) exhibited removals independent of PPCP concentration. PPCP removal efficiencies were dependent on initial concentrations for biphenylol, p-chloro-m-cresol, chlorophene, diclofenac, 5-fluorouracil, ibuprofen, and valproic acid, showing that PPCP concentration can affect biotransformation. Biofilms from sand samples collected from the 0.25- and 10-μg liter(-1) PPCP columns were pyrosequenced along with SAT soil samples collected on three consecutive days of a wetting and drying cycle to enable comparison of these two communities exposed to PPCPs. SAT communities were similar to column communities in taxonomy and phylotype composition, and both were found to contain close relatives of known PPCP degraders. The efficiency of biological removal of PPCPs was found to be dependent on the concentration at which the contamination occurs for some, but not all, PPCPs.

Influence of design, physico-chemical and environmental parameters on pharmaceuticals and fragrances removal by constructed wetlands

The ability of several mesocosm-scale and full-scale constructed wetlands (CWs) to remove pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) from urban wastewater was assessed. The results of three previous works were considered as a whole to find common patterns in PPCP removal. The experiment took place outdoors under winter and summer conditions. The mesocosm-scale CWs differed in some design parameters, namely the presence of plants, the vegetal species chosen (Typha angustifolia versus Phragmites australis), the flow configuration (surface flow versus subsurface flow), the primary treatment (sedimentation tank versus HUSB), the feeding regime (batch flow versus continuous saturation) and the presence of gravel bed. The full-scale CWs consisted of a combination of various subsystems (ponds, surface flow CWs and subsurface flow CWs). The studied PPCPs were ketoprofen, naproxen, ibuprofen, diclofenac, salicylic acid, carbamazepine, caffeine, methyl dihydrojasmonate, galaxolide and tonalide. The performance of the evaluated treatment systems was compound dependent and varied as a function of the CW-configuration. In addition, PPCP removal efficiencies were lower during winter. The presence of plants favoured naproxen, ibuprofen, diclofenac, salicylic acid, caffeine, methyl dihydrojasmonate, galaxolide and tonalide removal. Significant positive correlations were observed between the removal of most PPCPs and temperature or redox potential. Accordingly, microbiological pathways appear to be the most likely degradation route for the target PPCPs in the CWs studied.

Preliminary screening of small-scale domestic wastewater treatment systems for removal of pharmaceutical and personal care products

Occurrence and removal efficiencies of 13 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) as well as BOD 5, TSS and NH 4 + were evaluated for the first time in thirteen onsite household secondary wastewater treatment systems, including two compact biofilters followed by Filtralite-P filter units, two biological sand filters, five horizontal subsurface flow and four vertical flow constructed wetlands. As expected, all systems removed TSS and BOD 5 efficiently (>95% removal). The PPCP removal efficiencies exceeded 80% with the exception of carbamazepine, diclofenac and ketoprofen because of their more recalcitrant characteristics. Despite no statistical differences in the PPCP removal were observed between the different systems evaluated, the vegetated vertical flow constructed wetlands which had unsaturated flow and hence better oxygenation, appeared consistently to perform better in terms of PPCP removal efficiency. The combined effects of vegetation and unsaturated water flow provide a higher tolerance to variations in loading rate and a consistent removal rate.

水環境中のＰＰＣＰｓのモニタリングと浄水工程を想定した処理性評価

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and their metabolites continually flow into aquatic environments and are detected widely at significant concentrations. However, a comprehensive survey has not been conducted on PPCPs in aquatic environments in Japan. Moreover, the information about removal techniques for PPCPs, such as chlorination and ozonization, is limited. In this study, we investigated the occurrence of fifteen PPCPs in water samples (sewage water and river water) collected in urban areas of Japan and evaluated the PPCPs removal efficiencies of chlorination and powdered activated carbon treatment. PPCPs (except erythromycin, paroxetine, and fluvoxamine) were detected in almost all sewage water and river water samples. The highest value was observed in bezafibrate and detected at μg · l-1 level. The concentrations of other PPCPs were one order of magnitude lower than that of bezafibrate. The removal efficiency of chlorination varied with the type of PPCPs, and the percentages of relative residuals of fibrates, fluvoxamine, carbamazepine, and ethenzamide were more than 50% at four hours after treatment. On the other hand, although removal rate was relatively low compared with that of chlorination, almost all PPCPs were satisfactory removed by powdered activated carbon treatment. These results suggest that a combination of these treatments could be effective for the removal of PPCPs.

Removal of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) from Urban Wastewater in a Pilot Vertical Flow Constructed Wetland and a Sand Filter

Removal efficiencies and elimination kinetics of 13 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and BOD5, TSS, and ammonium were evaluated in a pilot vertical subsurface-flow constructed wetland (VFCW) and compared with those obtained by a sand filter. On the basis of the observed removals, the PPCPs studied were grouped in relation to their removal efficiency into (i) PPCPs very efficiently removed, that is, >95% removal in one of the systems (caffeine, salicylic acid, methyl dihydrojasmonate, CA-ibuprofen, hydrocinnamic acid, oxybenzone, ibuprofen, OH-ibuprofen); (ii) PPCPs moderately removed, with removals between 70 and 90% in the two systems (naproxen, diclofenac, galaxolide, and tonalide); and finally (iii) PPCPs poorly removed, with elimination rates of <30% (carbamazepine). At design hydraulic loading rate (HLR) the planted VFCW and the nonplanted SF exhibited similar PPCP removal efficiencies, but the VFCWwas less sensitive to removal decline in overloading conditions (up to 2 times the design HLR). Moreover, under a clogging simulation, the HLR and the presence of vegetation were some of the key aspects affecting the PPCPs, BOD5, and ammonium removal from domestic wastewater. The VFCW evaluated was more efficient in terms of removal efficiency and loading rate for most of the PPCPs studied in comparison to constructed wetlands of other configurations (i.e., horizontal subsurface flow) and SF (nonplanted). The shorter hydraulic residence time (a few hours) in VFCW compared to that in other CW configurations ranging from days to weeks makes VFCWs a very appropriate wastewater treatment option in space-limited areas.