Relative Humidity Research Articles

Scrub typhus is transmitted through vectors and is susceptible to meteorological factors, posing a significant threat to human life and health. Therefore, in this study, the nonlinear relationships between meteorological factors and scrub typhus (ST) and the lag effects of meteorological factors on ST were analyzed, and the explanatory power of these factors on the spatially stratified heterogeneity of ST was evaluated. Monthly data on ST cases and meteorological factors were collected in Jiangxi from 2014 to 2023. A distributed lag nonlinear model (DLNM) was used to analyze the lag effects and nonlinear relationships between meteorological factors and ST. Geodetector was conducted using 2023 spatial data to evaluate the explanatory power of meteorological factors and their interactions on the spatially stratified heterogeneity of ST. A total of 9129 cases of newly diagnosed ST were recorded. The DLNM demonstrated nonlinear relationships between meteorological factors and ST and lag effects of meteorological factors on ST. The influence of temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed on the ST initially increased, peaking at 25.50°C, 84.80%, and 2.00m/s, respectively, before decreasing. Precipitation was associated with an increasing risk of ST, whereas pressure tended to decrease risk. Compared with median meteorological values, extreme conditions (such as extremely low temperature, extremely low relative humidity, extremely high pressure, and extremely high wind speed) had a protective effect on the incidence of ST. Conversely, extremely high precipitation and extremely low pressure were associated with an elevated risk of ST. Geodetector analysis revealed the following explanatory power for the spatially stratified heterogeneity of ST: temperature (0.357) > relative humidity (0.351) > pressure (0.275) > precipitation (0.225) > wind speed (0.223). Temperature and relative humidity emerged as the most critical indicators affecting ST. Furthermore, the incidence of ST was driven by the combined effects of multiple meteorological factors. The incidence of ST in Jiangxi Province is significantly influenced by meteorological factors, with both lag effects and nonlinear relationships. Temperature and relative humidity are the key indicators affecting ST. The consideration of meteorological factors is essential for the prevention and control of ST.

Despite significant advancements in perovskite solar cells, their defect states remain a critical bottleneck limiting further breakthroughs in efficiency and stability. Herein, an omnidirectional multi-type defect passivation strategy is judiciously proposed, which achieves comprehensive defect passivation within the bulk, at surfaces, and throughout interfaces by introducing two organic potassium salts, potassium 4-formylphenyltrifluoroborate and potassium propylxanthate, into the perovskite precursor and interfacial layer, respectively. The highly electronegative functional groups from the organic anion moiety can not only form hydrogen bonds with positively charged FA⁺, but also act as typical Lewis bases to stabilize uncoordinated Pb2⁺ defects. Meanwhile, the free K⁺ can suppress internal ion migration by binding with iodide ions, thereby comprehensively eliminating various defects that are responsible for non-radiative recombination in the device. Ultimately, the device achieves a remarkable PCE power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 25.78% with a negligible hysteresis and an open-circuit voltage loss of ≈349mV. Impressively, benefiting from the hydrophobic interface protection and throughout defect elimination, the resultant devices exhibit admirable stabilities, with retaining 88.7% of its initial PCE after 1100h of continuous thermal stress at 85°C and 86.8% after 1400h of aging under 40±5% relative humidity, respectively.

Cotton (Gossypium spp. L.), a vital natural fibre and cash crop, significantly contributes to India’s economy but it is increasingly threatened by tobacco streak virus (TSV)-induced necrosis, a major emerging viral disease in southern India. The present study on the Epidemiology of necrosis virus disease of cotton caused by tobacco streak virus (TSV) was conducted during the Kharif season of 2024-25 at the Agricultural Research Station, Hagari, Ballari, Karnataka, using the susceptible cotton hybrid RCH 659. The study aimed to determine the influence of weather parameters and thrips population on the development of cotton necrosis disease. The onset of disease was observed during the 32nd standard meteorological week (SMW) (6-12 August) with 6.00 per cent incidence and reached its peak of 54.00 per cent during the 38th SMW (17-23 September), coinciding with favourable weather conditions and high thrips activity. Correlation analysis revealed a highly significant positive relationship between disease incidence, sunshine hours (0.551) and thrips population (0.889). Maximum temperature showed a positive but non-significant correlation (0.256), while minimum temperature, rainfall and relative humidity (morning and evening) exhibited weak, non-significant relationships. The multiple regression analysis (0.860) confirmed that thrips population had the greatest positive influence on disease incidence, followed by morning relative humidity and rainfall. These results indicate that thrips abundance, together with conducive weather conditions during August and September, played a decisive role in the spread and intensity of cotton necrosis disease. The findings contribute to a better understanding of the disease epidemiology and can assist in forecasting and developing effective management strategies.

Compared with organic-inorganic perovskites, cesium-based inorganic perovskites such as CsPbI2Br have garnered significant interest for terahertz (THz)modulation due to their excellent thermal stability. However, defects present in these inorganic perovskites can serve as charge carrier traps and form recombination centers, which reduce carrier lifetime and modulation depth. To address these issues, phenyltrimethylammonium tribromide (PTABr)-doped CsPbI2Br films are prepared using a solution spin-coating method. In this doped structure, the PTABr plays a dual function of passivating defects and enhancing structural stability, thereby enabling highly efficient and stable THzmodulation. Relative to pristine CsPbI2Br films, the PTABr-doped films exhibit a uniform, pinhole-free morphology, along with larger grain size, higher crystallinity, and reduced defect density. Moreover, the PTABr incorporation yields a 41% improvement in modulation depth at 0.61 THz. Notably, the doped films retain over 90% of their initial maximum modulation depth after 60 days of storage in an air environment (25°C, 25% relative humidity (RH)). Thus, this additive engineering strategy offers a promising pathway for developing high-performance and highly stable inorganic perovskite-based THz devices.

Despite extensive research on thermal stress in protective clothing environments, little is known about how humidity-induced work performance degradation occurs across physiological and psychological domains. Here, we quantify the relationships between relative humidity (RH) exposure and human responses by examining twelve male participants wearing personal protective equipment (PPE) across six humidity levels (50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, and 100%) during controlled exercise protocols. We developed a three-stage analytical framework comprising one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to identify humidity-sensitive variables, polynomial regression to model relationships between RH and measured parameters, and marginal effect analysis to determine critical thresholds and optimal zones. The study revealed that skin temperature highly correlates with RH among physiological parameters. Distinct response thresholds emerged, with psychological discomfort manifesting at 60% RH, preceding physiological strain indicators that appeared at 70–90% RH. This temporal dissociation indicates that subjective perception responses occur before measurable physiological changes. Marginal effect analysis identified an optimal performance zone between 63% and 70% RH for physiological and 60% and 75% for psychological indicators at 25°C. Beyond these boundaries, performance deteriorated, with reaction times increasing by 21.5% at 100% RH. These thresholds inform current occupational standards that rely predominantly on physiological monitoring, potentially overlooking early stage thermal strain. Our findings provide a framework for refining workplace environmental guidelines under controlled conditions and demonstrate that integrating psychological assessments into heat stress protocols could improve early detection of adverse conditions, enhancing safety for workers in protective equipment.

Abstract. Organosulfate (OS) surfactants can influence cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) activation and hygroscopic growth by reducing the surface tension of aerosol particles. We investigate the surface tension and hygroscopicity of aerosols containing short- and long-chain OSs in supersaturated aqueous droplets using an electrodeformation method coupled with Raman spectroscopy. For droplets containing short-chain OSs, the surface tension decreases as relative humidity (RH) decreases, even under dry and highly viscous conditions. Sodium ethyl sulfate (SES) lowered surface tension to approximately 30 mN m−1, a value lower than that of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) at its critical micelle concentration. We also studied ternary systems containing OSs with citric acid (CA) or sodium chloride (NaCl). Even small amounts of SDS, with a molar ratio of 10−3 relative to CA, reduce surface tension by up to 40 % at low RH compared to CA alone. Despite strong surface tension reduction, ternary OS–CA–water systems show hygroscopicity nearly identical to binary CA–water systems, suggesting that surface tension does not influence water uptake under subsaturated conditions. Ternary systems containing NaCl and OS undergo efflorescence at 47 % RH, but the crystallized NaCl becomes partially engulfed. If the RH is subsequently increased, the particle takes up water. At the deliquescence point (72 % RH), the particle becomes homogeneous again. These findings improve our understanding of particle growth and cloud drop formation processes, which influence cloud properties like albedo and lifetime.

In this study, six common fused filament fabrication (FFF) polymers—PEEK, PLA, PETG, ABS, Nylon, and TPU—were acclimatized at 15%, 45%, and 95% relative humidity (RH) to characterize tensile behavior, including Young’s modulus, maximum strain, and ultimate tensile strength. Separately, mechanical metamaterial samples at relative densities (RD) of 25%, 35%, and 45% were tested in compression at the same RH levels to evaluate stiffness, strength, and Poisson’s ratio. The water absorption process can generally be divided into different stages—rapid uptake (0–12 h), a plateau (12–60 h), and a late rebound (60–100 h)—with a total uptake ranking of Nylon > PETG > PLA ≈ ABS > TPU ≈ PEEK. Samples under tensile and compressive tests show a great difference between properties at different RD and RH levels. Poisson’s ratio indicates that material responses remain predictable at low-to-moderate RH, whereas high RH serves as a critical threshold inducing abrupt Poisson’s ratio behavioral shifts. This study provides systematic validation for the application of 3D-printed metamaterials under varying humidity conditions, such as biomedical implants in human body.

Production and productivity of green gram are mainly constrained by fungal diseases which led to a yield loss of 20-80 %. In the present study, geo-referenced surveys were conducted weekly during July-August of, 2023-24 and 2024-25 in three major green gram producing districts of Rajasthan namely, Bikaner, Jodhpur and Nagaur, to assess the prevalence and severity of green gram anthracnose disease (GAD) in the arid ecosystem of India. The disease index in the range of 25.02-31.85 % and 28.40-35.19 % were recorded in 2023-24 and 2024-25 respectively. Correlation studies between per cent disease index (PDI) and weather parameters, maximum temperature (Tmax), minimum temperature (Tmin), morning relative humidity (RHM), evening relative humidity (RHE) and rainfall (RF) revealed that RHM and RHE had a positive correlation with PDI across all three districts. The predisposition of the disease found in this study provided an overall study for disease management programme in the speedily expanding of green gram cultivation in India.

Abstract. Atmospheric vapor pressure deficit (VPD) controls local plant physiology and global vegetation productivity. However, at ecologically crucial intermediate spatial scales, the role of VPD variability in forest bryophyte community assembly and the processes controlling this variability are little known. To explore VPD effects on bryophyte community composition and richness and to disentangle processes controlling landscape-scale VPD variability, we recorded bryophyte communities and simultaneously measured forest microclimate air temperature and relative humidity across a topographically diverse landscape representing a bryophyte diversity hotspot in temperate Europe. Based on VPD importance for plant physiology, we hypothesize that VPD can be important also for bryophyte community assembly and that VPD variability will be jointly driven by saturated and actual vapor pressure across the topographically diverse landscape with contrasting forest types and steep microclimatic gradients. Contrary to our expectation, VPD variability was dictated by temperature-driven differences in saturated vapor pressure, while actual vapor pressure was surprisingly constant across the landscape. Gradients in species composition, species richness and community structure of bryophyte assemblages followed closely the VPD variability. The average daily mean VPD was a much better predictor of species composition than average daily maximum VPD. The mean VPD also explained significantly more variation in species composition and richness than maximum temperature, indicating that time-averaged evaporative stress is more relevant for bryophyte communities than microclimatic extremes. While mesic forest bryophytes occurred along the whole VPD gradient, species occurring near their distributional limits and locally rare species preferred sites with low VPD. Consequently, low VPD sites represent species-rich microclimatic refugia within the landscape, where regionally abundant mesic forest bryophytes coexist with rare species occurring near their distributional range limits. Our results showed that VPD variability at ecologically crucial landscape scales is controlled by temperature-driven saturated vapor pressure. Future climate warming will thus increase evaporative stress and reshuffle VPD-sensitive forest bryophyte communities even in topographically diverse landscapes, which are traditionally considered as microclimatic refugia buffered against climate change. Bryophyte species occurring near their distributional range limits in microclimatic refugia with low VPD will be especially vulnerable to the future changes in atmospheric VPD.

Abstract Ti 3 C 2 T x MXene's weak ability to capture negative triboelectric charges severely limits its application as a dielectric layer filler in triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs). In this work, fluorinated MXene nanosheets (F‐MXene) is successfully prepared by grafting perfluorocarbon chains onto the surface terminators of Ti 3 C 2 T x MXene nanosheets through Fischer esterification reaction, using the carboxyl group of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) as the active site, greatly enhancing its triboelectric charge capture capability. The F‐MXene nanosheets are then used as dielectric filler materials, combined with biocompatible Ecoflex silicone rubber and spin‐coated onto a conductive silver fiber electrode to construct a multifunctional triboelectric nanogenerator (FM‐TENG) with continuous and stable output performance. Under realistic conditions of 35 °C and 83% relative humidity, the FM‐TENG achieves 146% voltage output, 142% current output, 179% charge transfer compared to the TENG with Ti 3 C 2 T x MXene nanosheets as the dielectric filler (SR‐MXene TENG) and 363 mW m − 2 power density. This self‐powered system enables applications such as hand motion monitoring, letter recognition, and non‐contact distance detection. This study demonstrates that improving the negative triboelectric charge capture capability of MXene nanosheets through perfluorocarbon chain modification provides a new strategy for enhancing the negative charge capture capability, thereby enabling the efficient and stable operation of triboelectric sensors.

Frequency-dependent impedance spectroscopy in combination with machine learning offers a powerful strategy for discriminating among gas species using mutually interacting semiconductor metal oxide (SMO) gas sensors. In this study, 0.3 at% platinum-loaded SnO2 sensing materials were employed to breath-based disease detection, with a focus on machine learning-assisted discrimination of mixtures of acetone (0.5-2.5 ppm) and ethanol (0.5-2.5 ppm) under both dry and humid environments (80% relative humidity). Data features derived from the real, imaginary, and magnitude components of complex impedance obtained at the frequency range from 105 to 104 Hz were used to enhance gas discrimination performance through supervised deep learning neural networks (DNNs). Even with a single sensor designed through structural and compositional modifications, frequency-dependent impedance features enabled accurate identification of acetone concentrations in acetone-ethanol mixtures under humid conditions, achieving 99% accuracy using single-frequency impedance data (i.e., 105 Hz), compared to 66% with DC-based (voltage) signals. This innovative strategy offers an effective and scalable solution for detecting not only breath acetone but also gas mixtures composed of chemically similar gas species.

Older adults with reduced thermoregulatory capabilities are increasingly at risk of heat-related pathophysiological outcomes (e.g., acute kidney injury, heatstroke) due to increasingly frequent, prolonged and intense heatwaves. Foot immersion and neck cooling have been proposed as practical, non-electrical cooling strategies for protecting older adults during heatwaves, though evidence supporting their efficacy is limited. This study evaluated the effect of foot immersion with or without neck cooling on systemic proteins associated with acute kidney injury (NGAL, KIM-1), intestinal enterocyte damage (IFABP), immune activation (sCD14) and systemic inflammation (IL-6, TNF-α, CRP) in older adults. Seventeen participants (nine females; median [IQR] age 72 [69-74] years) completed three randomized 6-h passive heat exposures (38°C, 35% relative humidity) with no-cooling, foot immersion in 20°C water, or foot immersion with neck cooling via wet towels. Thermal and cardiovascular strain were measured throughout exposures, with venous blood samples collected pre- and post-exposure. Body core temperature increased by ∼1.1°C (P<0.001) with no changes in any measured systemic proteins (all P>0.05) across conditions. Foot immersion with or without neck cooling modestly reduced heart rate, mean skin temperature, whole-body sweat rate and fluid consumption (P<0.05), but had no effect on body core temperature or systemic protein concentrations (all P>0.05) relative to no-cooling. These findings do not support the efficacy of these interventions for mitigating hyperthermia in older adults during heatwaves. Further research is warranted to evaluate their efficacy for protecting against heat-related acute kidney injury, intestinal enterocyte damage, immune activation, or systemic inflammation under more severe exposure conditions.

This study examines whether daily heat exposure worsens psychological well-being among self-employed motorcycle delivery workers in Brasília, Brazil. Using ecological momentary assessment over 15 consecutive days in August 2025, 45 workers were recruited and 30 (66.7%) completed twice-daily mobile prompts (12:00 and 18:00) rating stress, fatigue, mood, and perceived heat (1–5 scales) and reporting kilometers traveled. Environmental data (temperature, relative humidity, barometric pressure) were paired from the INMET Brasília station. Linear regressions with cluster-robust standard errors by participant tested associations. Higher temperature was consistently related to greater strain: each +1 °C was associated with higher stress (β = 0.196, 95% CI 0.179–0.213), higher fatigue (β = 0.289, 95% CI 0.284–0.295), and worse mood (β = 0.149, 95% CI 0.130–0.168). Adding relative humidity yielded small but reliable partial effects (lower stress and better mood, yet higher fatigue) amid strong dry-season collinearity between temperature and humidity. The findings indicate that even modest day-to-day warming corresponds to measurable deterioration in psychological outcomes in a precarious, outdoor, platform-mediated workforce. Policies that expand hydration and shaded rest access, integrate heat indices into alerts, and adapt platform scheduling to reduce peak-heat exposure may mitigate risk.

Abstract Understanding future changes in temperature variability and extremes is an important scientific challenge with societal impacts. Here the responses of daily near-surface temperature distributions to climate warming is explored using an idealized GCM. Simulations of a wide range of climate states are performed using both a slab-ocean aquaplanet configuration and a simple continental configuration with a bucket-style model for land hydrology. In the tropics, the responses of extreme temperatures to climate change contrast strongly over land and ocean. Over land, warming is amplified for hot days relative to the average summer day. But over ocean, warming is suppressed for hot days, implying a narrowing of the temperature distribution. Previous studies have developed theories based on convective coupling to interpret changes in extreme temperatures over land. Building on that work, the contrasting temperature distribution responses over land and ocean are investigated using a novel theoretical framework based on local convective coupling. The theory highlights five physical mechanisms with the potential to drive differential warming across temperature percentiles: free-tropospheric temperature change, relative humidity change, convective available potential energy (CAPE) change, the hot-get-hotter mechanism, and the drier-get-hotter mechanism. Hot days are relatively dry over land due to limited moisture availability, which drives the drier-get-hotter mechanism and amplified warming of the warm tail of the distribution. This mechanism is the primary factor explaining the contrasting responses of hot days over land and ocean to climate change. But other mechanisms also contribute to changing the temperature distribution, with changes in free-tropospheric temperature and surface relative humidity having large influences (which partially cancel).

Abstract Evolving tropical cyclone characteristics are expected to amplify coastal hazards in a warmer climate. Here, we investigated seasonal-scale tropical cyclone genesis and landfall patterns from &gt;64,000 statistically-downscaled tropical cyclones that impact Southeast Asian coastlines from the historical (1881–1900) through the future (2081–2100) eras for both moderate and high emission scenarios. From the historical to future eras, tropical cyclone genesis shifts northwards across seasons, with an increased likelihood of genesis adjacent to major coastlines. Proportional increases in genesis exceed 100% during the winter monsoon season and up to 50% during the summer monsoon season. Relative humidity and vertical wind shear become increasingly important influences on tropical cyclone genesis, particularly during the summer monsoon and autumn seasons. There are also increased likelihoods of tropical cyclones making their first landfall along the coastlines of the Philippines and Indonesia during the winter monsoon and spring seasons, and along mainland Southeast Asian coastlines during the summer monsoon and autumn seasons. These changes demonstrate the need for improved coastal resiliency and mitigation strategies in this highly populated part of the world.

Abstract Dual-frequency ratio ( DFR ) is obtained by combining satellite radar and ground-based radars, and discussed about the relationship between the size of solid precipitation particles and temperature and relative humidity. As radar reflectivity includes radar-specific biases, the radars were calibrated in advance. Cases of snowfall in Ishikawa (approximately 36.5° latitude) and Hokkaido (approximately 43.0° latitude) in Japan were selected, and the size differences of ice crystals and snowflakes were investigated. DFR was calculated by combining the Global Precipitation Measurement/Ku-band precipitation radar (GPM/KuPR) and a ground-based Ka-band radar, and DFR in Ishikawa was larger than that in Hokkaido with the same radar reflectivity values. This suggests that on average, the solid precipitation particles in Ishikawa were larger and had a lower number concentration than those in Hokkaido. Aggregation should be more enhanced in Ishikawa than in Hokkaido as the vertical profile of temperature in Ishikawa was approximately 5 °C higher than in Hokkaido, and supersaturation with respect to ice at approximately −15 °C was higher in Ishikawa than in Hokkaido. We also found that DFR obtained by combining the GPM/KuPR and ground-based X-band radars showed little difference between Ishikawa and Hokkaido, and that the size of solid precipitation particles can be qualitatively evaluated from DFR using ground-based and satellite radars when the frequency difference is sufficiently large.

This study aimed to evaluate the impact of bioactive-based edible coatings on the shelf life of tomatoes. Bioactive compounds were extracted from rice and wheat straw. Different concentrations of phenolic extracts (0.2–1.0 g/mL) were blended with 1% chitosan and applied to fresh tomatoes stored at 28 °C and 74%−84% relative humidity (RH) for 30 days. Periodic evaluations revealed that tomatoes coated with 1.0 g/mL extract of rice and wheat straw coatings were highly effective in maintaining tomato quality as compared to controls. Tomatoes coated with 1.0 g/mL extract of wheat straw exhibited the most favorable results, including delayed weight loss (1.29%), slowed ripening, reduced pH levels, and lower lycopene (2.79 mg/100 g) and beta-carotene (0.62 mg/100 g) contents as compared to those coated with coatings containing rice straw extracts. Additionally, wheat straw extract-coated tomatoes had the lowest disease incidence (2%) after 30 days, as compared to 100% incidence in control samples. Overall, using edible coatings enriched with rice and wheat straw extracts presents a promising approach to extending the shelf life of tomatoes while preserving their nutritional value, inhibiting microbial growth, and offering a more sustainable and eco-friendlier alternative to conventional packaging methods.

The information of accurate forecasting on temperature, rainfall is also very crucial for disaster preparedness, as well for climate management. Typical statistical and machine learning approaches have limited ability to capture nonlinear and spatiotemporally varying structure of climate fields. This research utilized recent state-of-the-art deep learning models to improve the prediction models for both temperature and rainfall. The hybrid Convolutional Neural Networks and Long Short-Term Memory (CNN–LSTM) method achieved the best results (R² = 0.98 for temperature, 0.91 for rainfall), outperforming those of Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) and Random Forest (RF) as a traditional model. The Physics-Informed Neural Network (PINN) model delivered physically consistent and stable predictions, especially under extreme weather such as heavy rainfall or heatwaves. Relative humidity, atmospheric pressure and sea surface temperature were found as most important predictors-base on feature importance analysis. The regional analysis remained that the coastal region performed best, whereas the hilly region with the high topographical complexity presented a relatively lower accuracy. In general, embedding deep learning into physical constraints ended up improving a lot both correctness and robustness of predictions. Further work should be carried out to improve interpretability, inclusiveness of data and transferability in space of such models with the ambition to build a more sustainable real-time weather forecasting system.

Abstract. We present the first large-sample catchment hydrology dataset for Aotearoa New Zealand with hourly time series: the Catchment Attributes and Meteorology for Large-Sample Studies – New Zealand (CAMELS-NZ). This dataset provides hourly hydrometeorological time series and comprehensive landscape attributes for 369 catchments across New Zealand, ranging from 1972 to 2024. Hourly records include streamflow, precipitation, temperature, relative humidity, and potential evapotranspiration, with more than 65 % of streamflow records exceeding 40 years in length. CAMELS-NZ offers a rich set of static catchment attributes that quantify physical characteristics such as land cover, soil properties, geology, topography, and human impacts, including information on abstractions, dams, groundwater, or snowmelt influences, as well as on ephemeral rivers. New Zealand's remarkable gradients in climate, topography, and geology give rise to diverse hydroclimatic landscapes and hydrological behaviours, making CAMELS-NZ a unique contribution to large-scale hydrological studies. Furthermore, New Zealand's hydrology is defined by highly permeable volcanic catchments, sediment-rich alpine rivers with glacial contributions, and steep, rainfall-driven fast-rising rivers, providing opportunities to study diverse hydrological processes and rapid hydrological responses. CAMELS-NZ adheres to the standards established by most previously published CAMELS datasets, enabling international comparison studies. The dataset fills a critical gap in global hydrology by representing a Pacific Island environment with complex hydrological processes. This dataset supports a wide range of hydrological research applications, including model development and climate impact assessments, predictions in ungauged basins, and large-sample comparative studies. The open-access nature of CAMELS-NZ ensures broad usability across multiple research domains, providing a foundation for national water resource and flood management, as well as international hydrological research. By integrating long-term high-resolution data with diverse catchment attributes, we hope that CAMELS-NZ will enable innovative research into New Zealand's hydrological systems while contributing to the global initiative to create freely available large-sample datasets for the hydrological community. The CAMELS-NZ dataset can be accessed at https://doi.org/10.26021/canterburynz.28827644 (Bushra et al., 2025).

Proton conductors with engineered charge-assisted hydrogen-bonding networks are pivotal for advancing proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). Herein, a novel proton-conducting supramolecular clusters, ([Bi6O5 (OH)3]2.24[PW12O40]1[NO3]2.4[H3O]5.8, BPN) has been synthesized and characterized. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations reveal that charge-assisted dynamic O─H⋯O hydrogen bonds mediate the supramolecular assembly, while water molecules facilitate proton transport pathways. The material exhibits a maximum proton conductivity of 0.12S cm-1 at 90°C and 97% (RH) relative humidity, which is comparable to that of Nafion. The spin-lattice relaxation time (T1) of the Bi-O adsorbed protons is significantly shorter than that of the W-O adsorbed protons, indicating that the protons at the Bi-O sites have a higher migration rate. 1H magic-angle spinning NMR (1H MAS NMR) and density functional theory (DFT) calculations reveal [Bi6O8] enhances proton mobility, while [PW12O40] stabilizes transition states, lowering the activation barrier to 0.14eV. The BPN-Nafion hybrid membrane enhances direct methanol fuel cell performance with an open-circuit voltage of 0.82V and power density of 86mW cm-2. This integrative design strategy-synergizing inorganic cluster units with dynamic hydrogen-bonding networks-establishes a scalable platform for developing PEMFC materials with programmable proton transport pathways and improved operational stability.