Rehearsal Set Research Articles

Rehearsing the 'Éthnik-Jazz Aesthetic'

Academic analyses of music aesthetics often privilege the intellectual process of creating symbolic connections over the practical negotiation between performing musicians in a rehearsal setting. In contrast, this article examines the way in which aesthetic elements (styles of improvisation, instrumental riffs, basslines, rhythm grooves, and so on) emerge as a result of power struggles, personal rivalries, and competing stylistic sensibilities. Drawing on my research among ethnic-jazz music groups in Athens, who experimented with cross-overs between funk rhythms, Eastern Mediterranean modal melodies, and jazz harmonization, this article will reveal how musical hybridity can become a contested terrain during rehearsals, creating social dramas of different magnitudes. The first part of the article examines ethnographic vignettes from rehearsals with Athenian musicians, while the second part analyses written testimonies from musicians on their perception of rehearsals and their role in collective music-making.

Remember to blink: Reduced attentional blink following instructions to forget.

This study used rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) to determine whether, in an item-method directed forgetting task, study word processing ends earlier for forget words than for remember words. The critical manipulation required participants to monitor an RSVP stream of black nonsense strings in which a single blue word was embedded. The next item to follow the word was a string of red fs that instructed the participant to forget the word or green rs that instructed the participant to remember the word. After the memory instruction, a probe string of black xs or os appeared at postinstruction positions 1-8. Accuracy in reporting the identity of the probe string revealed an attenuated attentional blink following instructions to forget. A yes-no recognition task that followed the study trials confirmed a directed forgetting effect, with better recognition of remember words than forget words. Considered in the context of control conditions that required participants to commit either all or none of the study words to memory, the pattern of probe identification accuracy following the directed forgetting task argues that an intention to forget releases limited-capacity attentional resources sooner than an instruction to remember-despite participants needing to maintain an ongoing rehearsal set in both cases.

Time of presentation affects auditory distraction: Changing-state and deviant sounds disrupt similar working memory processes.

Four experiments tested conflicting predictions about which components of the serial-recall task are most sensitive to auditory distraction. Changing-state (Experiments 1a and 1b) and deviant distractor sounds (Experiments 2a and 2b) were presented in one of four different intervals of the serial-recall task: (1) during the first half of encoding, (2) during the second half of encoding, (3) during the first half of retention, or (4) during the second half of retention. According to the embedded-processes model, both types of distractors should interfere with the encoding and rehearsal of targets in the focus of attention. According to the duplex-mechanism account, changing-state distractors should interfere only with rehearsal, whereas deviant distractors should interfere only with encoding. Inconsistent with the latter view, changing-state and deviant distractor sounds interfered with both the encoding and the retention of the targets. Both types of auditory distraction were most pronounced during the second half of encoding when the increasing rehearsal demands had to be coordinated with the continuous updating of the rehearsal set. These findings suggest that the two types of distraction disrupt similar working memory mechanisms.

The Perceived Effectiveness of Nonverbal, Co-Verbal, and Verbal String Ensemble Instruction: Student, Teacher, and Observer Views

The purpose of this study was to determine how students, teachers, and outside observers perceive teaching effectiveness within a university-level string ensemble rehearsal setting. Students, teachers, and observers reflected on six rehearsal segments that used primarily nonverbal, co-verbal, or verbal instruction as outlined by Bob Culver in the Master Teacher Profile. Overall, participants viewed the verbal teaching episodes as being most effective, and expressed a preference for several elements associated with the verbal instructional mode. Five common elements of effective rehearsals identified by participants were Specific Instructions and Feedback, Delivery Skills and Eye Contact, Audible and Focused Co-Verbal Instruction Prompts, Conducting Effectiveness, and Ensemble Progress. Effectiveness perceptions were colored by participants’ sense of each teacher’s comfort with the different instructional modes as well as the elements of rehearsal teaching they personally valued.

Medical Education: Effectiveness of Two Simulation Teaching Methods in Developing Intubation Skills of Year Level Six Medical Students (Clinical Clerks)

Objective. To describe outcomes of two simulation teaching methods in developing intubation skills of year level six medical students (clinical clerks). Methods. Students were shown a 6-minute video on intubation. Students were exposed to video-assisted learning, videoassisted learning with instructor-guided simulation, and videoassisted learning with experiential learning. Each student was assessed by a non-graded 11 point objective structured clinical examination. Results and Discussion. The three learning strategies: 1. Videoassisted learning, 2. Video-assisted learning with instructorguided simulation, 3. Video-assisted learning with experiential learning (self-discovery learning) simulation showed OSCE mean scores (standard deviations) of 5.76 (2.16), 7.21 (2.35) and 7.60 (1.72), respectively. Failure of intubation was 21% (8/38), 2% (1/40) and 0% (0/36), respectively. There is an absolute risk reduction of 27-30% in failure of intubation when either VGL or VEL is used. Students recognized the contribution of the simulation-based activities to the development of their intubation skills. They appreciated the opportunity to actually perform intubation in a rehearsal setting before doing the procedure on real patients. Conclusion. Medical simulation enhanced student skills development. Experiential learning or self-discovery learning method may be as effective as instructor guided simulation.

Music Regulators in Two String Quartets: A Comparison of Communicative Behaviors between Low- and High-Stress Performance Conditions.

In ensemble performances, group members use particular bodily behaviors as a sort of “language” to supplement the lack of verbal communication. This article focuses on music regulators, which are defined as signs to other group members for coordinating performance. The following two music regulators are considered: body gestures for articulating attacks (a set of movements externally directed that are used to signal entrances in performance) and eye contact. These regulators are recurring observable behaviors that play an important role in non-verbal communication among ensemble members. To understand how they are used by chamber musicians, video recordings of two string quartet performances (Quartet A performing Bartók and Quartet B performing Haydn) were analyzed under two conditions: a low stress performance (LSP), undertaken in a rehearsal setting, and a high stress performance (HSP) during a public recital. The results provide evidence for more emphasis in gestures for articulating attacks (i.e., the perceived strength of a performed attack-type body gesture) during HSP than LSP. Conversely, no significant differences were found for the frequency of eye contact between HSP and LSP. Moreover, there was variability in eye contact during HSP and LSP, showing that these behaviors are less standardized and may change according to idiosyncratic performance conditions. Educational implications are discussed for improving interpersonal communication skills during ensemble performance.

So we think you can learn: how student perceptions affect learning

Recent experiences in rehearsals have led us to question how student dancers perceive the culture of rehearsal. We are interested in how the influence of shows like So You Think You Can Dance affects student expectations. How do students from competitive dance studio backgrounds approach learning in a rehearsal setting? Are there specific ways to ensure optimal learning in a rehearsal process? A qualitative evaluation is used for this research, utilizing interviews, and surveys to collect data from students enrolled in a ‘Rehearsal and Performance’ course at three separate institutions, to broaden the scope of the data collection. Our research outcomes will add to the current knowledge of the field, by analyzing the learning opportunities in a rehearsal culture and the intersection of student perceptions and experience.

Transfer of training from one working memory task to another: behavioural and neural evidence.

N-back working memory (WM) tasks necessitate the maintenance and updating of dynamic rehearsal sets during performance. The delayed matching-to-sample (dMTS) task is another WM task, which in turn involves the encoding, maintenance, and retrieval of stimulus representations in sequential order. Because both n-back and dMTS engage WM function, we hypothesized that compared to a control task not taxing WM, training on the n-back task would be associated with better performance on dMTS by virtue of training a shared mental capacity. We tested this hypothesis by randomly assigning subjects (N = 43) to train on either the n-back (including 2-back and 3-back levels) or an active control task. Following training, dMTS was administered in the fMRI scanner. The n-back group performed marginally better than the active control group on dMTS. In addition, although the n-back group improved more on the less difficult 2-back level than the more difficult 3-back level across training sessions, it was improvement on the 3-back level that accounted for 21% of the variance in dMTS performance. For the control group, improvement in training across sessions was unrelated to dMTS performance. At the neural level, greater activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus, right posterior parietal cortex, and the cerebellum distinguished the n-back group from the control group in the maintenance phase of dMTS. Degree of improvement on the 3-back level across training sessions was correlated with activation in right lateral prefrontal and motor cortices in the maintenance phase of dMTS. Our results suggest that although n-back training is more likely to improve performance in easier blocks, it is improvement in more difficult blocks that is predictive of performance on a target task drawing on WM. In addition, the extent to which training on a task can transfer to another task is likely due to the engagement of shared cognitive capacities and underlying neural substrates—in this case WM.

Rehearsal development as development of iterative recall processes.

Although much is known about the critical importance of active verbal rehearsal for successful recall, knowledge about the mechanisms of rehearsal and their respective development in children is very limited. To be able to rehearse several items together, these items have to be available, or, if presented and rehearsed previously, retrieved from memory. Therefore, joint rehearsal of several items may itself be considered recall. Accordingly, by analyzing free recall, one cannot only gain insight into how recall and rehearsal unfold, but also into how principles that govern children’s recall govern children’s rehearsal. Over a period of three and a half years (beginning at grade 3) 54 children were longitudinally assessed seven times on several overt rehearsal free recall trials. A first set of analyses on recall revealed significant age-related increases in the primacy effect and an age-invariant recency effect. In the middle portion of the list, wave-shaped recall characteristics emerged and increased with age, indicating grouping of the list into subsequences. In a second set of analyses, overt rehearsal behavior was decomposed into distinct rehearsal sets. Analyses of these sets revealed that the distribution of rehearsals within each set resembled the serial position curves with one- or two-item primacy and recency effects and wave-shaped rehearsal patterns in between. In addition, rehearsal behavior throughout the list was characterized by a decreasing tendency to begin rehearsal sets with the first list item. This result parallels the phenomenon of beginning recall with the first item on short lists and with the last item on longer lists.

Encouraging Cognitive Connections and Creativity in the Music Classroom

The ability to apply knowledge rests at the core of the educational experience and is an important aspect of all teaching. In music education, many experiences are structured so information gained can be related to another activity, but such transfer can be difficult. When students learn to transfer information and knowledge to new situations, they are more likely to retain that knowledge; this retention seems to be enhanced when the information is presented within an activity where creativity is encouraged. There is also evidence to support a technique where the teacher clearly states that transfer is a goal for learning in a “community-of-learners” environment, where the students share verbally their creative connections with the class. This article is an exploration of the concept of transfer and includes strategies for teaching creative thinking through transfer activities in the secondary music classroom or rehearsal setting.

The Effect of Teacher Approval and Disapproval of Music Performed in a Rehearsal Setting on Music Preferences

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of teacher approvals and disapprovals of music performed in a rehearsal setting on the music preferences of middle school students. Students ( N = 440) from eight middle school bands participated in the study and were assigned one of four different rehearsal conditions. Teachers rehearsed either one or two assigned pieces of music, while implementing one of the following treatment conditions: (a) rehearsal of one piece with teacher approval and rehearsal of the other piece without comment; (b) rehearsal of one piece with teacher disapproval and rehearsal of the other without comment; (c) rehearsal of only one of the pieces, with teacher approval; and (d) rehearsal of only one of the pieces, with teacher disapproval. After five rehearsals of the music, students were given a listening survey on which to rate their preferences for the two compositions. Results indicated that the treatment conditions had a significant effect on preferences. Ratings from the approval treatment condition were significantly higher than those from the disapproval treatment condition.

Analysis and Prediction of Combinatorial Chemistry Synthesis and Screening Data

The goal of combinatorial chemistry is to simultaneously synthesize sets of compounds possessing properties that are then distinguished through screening. As the size of a compound set increases, data analysis becomes more challenging. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is an accepted statistical method that offers a straightforward solution to this problem. Two steps encountered by combinatorial scientists appear well suited to ANOVA: the prediction of synthetic outcomes (purity and yield) of set members and the analysis of screening data to identify combinations of reagent inputs that result in molecules with a desired property. To illustrate, a subset of a combinatorial array, referred to as a reaction rehearsal set, is evaluated to create a model predictive of the individual synthetic outcomes of the full matrix. In a second exercise, the biochemical screening data obtained from a combinatorial library is analyzed to identify reagent interactions that result in molecules possessing the sought activity.

Quantitative practice for students at the Digital Conducting Laboratory

Students of conducting and conducting pedagogy at Arizona State University’s School of Music now have the opportunity to enhance their skills as performers and teachers with the assistance of a unique technology housed in the Digital Conducting Laboratory. Utilizing a Digital Conducting Feedback System designed by Dr. Teresa Marrin Nakra of Immersion Music, Inc., the laboratory has the capability to simulate many of the behaviors of a live orchestra rehearsal setting. The system’s unobtrusive sensor interface and interactive program recreates several fundamental ensemble-conductor interactions, particularly by reacting to the tempo, articulation, and dynamic line generated by the conductor. In addition to immediate aural feedback, the system allows conductors to review their performances via sound files, video playback, and analysis of muscle-tension profiles. The musical materials consist of a set of etudes that systematically take a conductor through a review of basic conducting gestures. Compiled and arranged by the laboratory’s founder and director, ASU Professor Gary W. Hill, the etudes are principally derived from familiar classical music, freeing the user to focus primarily on his or her conducting and the concomitant response.

Attentional Selectivity in Short‐term Memory: Similarity of Process, Not Similarity of Content, Determines Disruption

Background sound substantially disrupts serial recall, even under conditions where participants are explicitly told to ignore it. Study of such a phenomenon may serve to illuminate the manner in which information from various sources interacts in memory, as well as the extent to which unattended information is processed. A review of the literature is presented that points to a number of conclusions. First, that interference occurs in memory, not on the basis of similarity of content between relevant and irrelevant material, but rather on the basis of similarity of process. Specifically, in a serial recall task, the key memory process is that of order retention, and therefore, order information in the sequence of auditory events interferes with the process of ordering within the rehearsal set. Second, that organisation and interference within memory are intimately connected with perceptual processes.

Teaching Behaviors of Middle School and High School Band Directors in the Rehearsal Setting

The study was designed to investigate specific rehearsal behaviors exhibited by band directors in rehearsal settings. Of particular interest was the amount of time band directors engaged in conceptual teaching behaviors, defined as verbal behaviors of band directors in rehearsal settings in which the band director attempts to make students aware of, have an understanding of, and/or be able to transfer any musical concept. Participants ( N = 18) were full-time middle school or high school band, directors teaching in Florida. Each participant prepared a videotape of two or three regular band rehearsals. Randomly ordered 20-minute segments counterbalanced across all examples were extracted from each videotape for data analyses. Two trained observers viewed the prepared videotapes and simultaneously manipulated the dial of a Continuous Response Digital Interface (CRDI) to indicate perceived teacher behaviors. The CRDI dial was partitioned along a 256-degree arc into seven specific teacher behaviors. Results indicated that, on average, directors spent less than 3% of observed teaching time engaged in conceptual teaching behaviors. Percentages of time were computed for additional instructional, non-interactive, and feedback behaviors.

The Memory Performance of Selected Depressed and Nondepressed Nine- to Eleven-Year-Old Male Children

Few prior research studies have examined the cognitive functioning of depressed children. The present research determined that selected depressed children have short-term memory processing deficits compared to their nondepressed peers. Overt rehearsal and free recall requirements allowed for direct examination of the effortful process of rehearsal. The major findings of the study indicate that on the average depressed children rehearsed less both in repetition of words and in the size of their rehearsal sets at preselected serial positions. The nondepressed children on the average recalled more words than the depressed children. The present research demonstrates that depressed children have short-memory deficits and thus indicates the need for further research on the characteristics of childhood depression.

Children's spontaneous rehearsal: Transitions in strategy acquisition

In three experiments, children's spontaneous rehearsal was examined under two conditions of item presentation using a within-subject design. Under “normal presentation” conditions, visually presented items were removed from view after their initial presentation. In contrast, under “items-available presentation” conditions, all items remained visible after their initial presentation, a procedure designed to minimize the processing demands of cumulative, multi-item rehearsal. It was found in Experiments 1 and 2 that children who utilized a multi-item rehearsal strategy under normal presentation conditions rehearsed with even larger multi-item rehearsal sets with items available. Of the children who used a single-word strategy under normal conditions, approximately 70% rehearsed single words with items available (“single-word rehearsers”), whereas approximately 30% rehearsed cumulatively with items available (“transitional rehearsers”). In a third experiment, we retested some of the children from Experiment 2 one year after their initial testing. We found that most of the children previously classified as transitional, but not those who had consistently rehearsed single words, had advanced to using a cumulative rehearsal strategy under normal presentation conditions.

The effect of sign language rehearsal on deaf subjects' immediate and delayed recall of English word lists

ABSTRACTThe relationship between sign language rehearsal and written free recall was examined by having deaf college students overtly rehearse the sign language equivalents of printed English words. In studies of both immediate and delayed memory, word recall was found to increase as a function of total rehearsal frequency and frequency of appearance in rehearsal sets. The serial recall curves in both memory experiments evidenced a primacy effect, which was interpreted as resulting from increased rehearsal of the words in the initial positions over the course of the list. In contrast to findings from previous short- and long-term memory studies with normally hearing subjects, neither a recency nor a negative recency effect was found. High imagery words were rehearsed and recalled slightly more frequently in immediate memory, but there was no effect resulting from the different imagery values of the stimuli in delayed recall. These results are discussed in relation to current conceptualizations of memory and of linguistic processing by deaf individuals.

The effect of depth of processing on temporal judgment tasks

A levels of processing procedure was used to explore whether a rehearsal set constitutes a necessary condition for the successful performance of temporal judgments as suggested by Tzeng, Lee and Wetzel (1979). This suggestion was confirmed since no temporal judgments exceeded a random guessing level following a physical structure orienting task. Though order judgments following a semantic orienting task were certainly above chance level, the pattern was less clear for position and lag judgments. The results are taken as further support against the claim that all temporal coding takes place automatically.

The Effect of Programmed Materials on the Vocal Development of Selected Children's Choruses

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of programmed materials with adjunct listening examples on the vocal development of children's choruses. A programmed text was designed, tested, and revised in several pilot studies that constituted Phase 1. The text, developed by means of the systems approach model, was effective as measured by pretest-to-posttest gains by all subjects in summative and formative pilot testings. Phase 2 of the study was an experimental design to determine the amount of methods and materials presented in the text that could be implemented by practicing teachers. Forty music teachers and their respective choruses served as subjects and were divided into two groups: a no-contact control and an experimental group. Judges' ratings of the performances were used as the main variable to match groups; other variables included length of rehearsal, grade levels, and size of the chorus. All choruses were tape recorded singing “The Star-Spangled Banner.” Teachers in the experimental group were given copies of the programmed materials and allotted a 10-week interval to implement materials of their choice during rehearsals. The posttest taping utilized the same song and another of the teacher's choice. Results of data analysis indicated that there was no significant difference in the overall choral sound between groups. Written posttests did indicate a significant gain by teachers in the experimental group of knowledge contained in the text. It was concluded that the lack of significance may have been attributed to an inability to transfer concepts from the text to the rehearsal setting.