Regular Gamblers Research Articles

Numerical Reasoning Ability and Irrational Beliefs in Problem Gambling

Numerous studies have shown that pathological gamblers are particularly prone to various cognitive biases that may explain why they continue to gamble despite having occurred substantial losses. A common explanation advanced to account for this finding is that pathological gamblers may have poorer numerical or statistical knowledge than other people. Addressing these deficits is therefore seen as one possible way in which to assist pathological gamblers or prevent the development of problematic behaviour within the broader community. The aim of this study was test this assumption by assessing the numerical reasoning skills, objective gambling knowledge and tendency towards biased reasoning in a sample of 90 regular poker-machine gamblers (pathological and non-pathological) and a non-gambling comparison group (n = 45). Analyses based on both group comparisons and regression analyses controlling for differences in educational attainment showed that pathological gamblers scored significantly higher on the cognitive biases measure than other gamblers. However, this difference could not be attributed to poorer knowledge of gambling odds or limited numerical ability among pathological gamblers. The findings suggest that educating pathological gamblers with greater knowledge about the odds of gambling is unlikely to be an effective harm minimisation strategy.

An exploratory study of gambling motivations and their impact on the purchase frequencies of various gambling products

AbstractThe global gambling industry is huge and gambling has become a leading leisure activity in many countries. Although research on gambling is extensive, many gaps remain. The objective of this exploratory study was to examine how motivations for regular gambling varied by the forms of game played. Using data collected by the U.S. National Gambling Impact Study Commission, the study found that regular gamblers were motivated to gamble to win and to fulfill their sense of excitement/challenge for some gambling products like lottery, racetrack betting, and casinos. For others, such as bingo and card room games, they were motivated to gamble more for social reasons. The findings have important implications to marketers and public policy makers. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Gambling Level and Psychiatric and Medical Disorders in Older Adults: Results From the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions

This study examined the association between gambling level and psychiatric and medical disorders in a nationally representative sample of older adults. Data on 10,563 U.S. older adults (age 60 or older) were analyzed from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. A total 28.74% of older adults were lifetime recreational gamblers and 0.85% were lifetime disordered gamblers. Compared with older adults without a history of regular gambling, recreational gamblers had significantly elevated rates of alcohol (30.1% versus 12.8%), nicotine (16.9% versus 8.0%), mood (12.6% versus 11.0%), anxiety (15.0% versus 11.6%), and personality disorders (11.3% versus 7.3%) and obesity (25.6% versus 20.8%), but were less likely to have past-year diagnoses of arteriosclerosis (4.7% versus 6.0%) or cirrhosis (0.2% versus 0.4%). Disordered gamblers were significantly more likely than older adults without a history of regular gambling to have alcohol (53.2% versus 12.8%), nicotine (43.2% versus 8.0%), drug (4.6% versus 0.7%), mood (39.5% versus 11.0%), anxiety (34.5% versus 11.6%), and personality (43.0% versus 7.3%) disorders, and to have past-year diagnoses of arthritis (60.2% versus 44.3%) or angina (22.7% versus 8.8%). These results remained significant even after controlling for demographic, psychiatric, and behavioral risk factors. Lifetime recreational gamblers were more likely than nonregular gamblers to have psychiatric disorders but were less likely to have some medical conditions. Lifetime disordered gamblers had a range of lifetime psychiatric disorders and were more likely than nonregular gamblers to have past-year diagnoses of angina and arthritis.

Perceived Availability, Risks, and Benefits of Gambling among College Students

The current study was an exploration of gambling-related perceptions and their relation to gambling behavior among young adult college students. Three hundred and two ethnically diverse undergraduates at a large urban public university completed a survey to assess their perceptions of the availability, risks, and benefits of gambling, and the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) to assess gambling behavior and problems. Participants generally rated gambling as more available than alcohol or marijuana, and less risky than alcohol or cigarettes. The most common perceived benefits of gambling were social enhancement, financial gain, and positive changes in affect. Perceived benefits were a significant predictor of gambling problems. Perceived availability, perceived risk, and perceived benefits were found to be significant predictors of regular gambling. These results provide valuable information about the ways that college students perceive gambling and demonstrate that perceptions can be important predictors of gambling behavior.

Adolescent pathological gambling in Kaunas, Lithuania

This paper presents the results of the first survey of pathological gambling among adolescents in Kaunas, Lithuania. The results indicated that a large majority of adolescent (82.6%) have engaged in a variety of gambling activities. Although most respondents were classified as “occasional gamblers”, there were significantly more females than males who were occasional gamblers and non-gamblers, and significantly more males than females who were regular gamblers. More adolescents surveyed had gambled on Tele-Lotto than on any other gambling activity. Based on Diagnostic statistical manual-IV-Multiple Response-Adapted for Juveniles, 4.2% of participants were categorized as pathological gamblers, with a further 9.1% classified as at-risk gamblers, 69.4% as social gamblers, and 17.3% as non-gamblers. Based on South Oaks Gambling Screen-Revised for Adolescents, 5.2% (n=43) of participants were categorized as pathological gamblers, with a further 10.5% (n=88) classified as at-risk gamblers, 67% (n=559) as social gamblers, and 17.3% (n=145) as non-gamblers. The commonest reason given by adolescents for gambling were “enjoyment”, “a chance to try luck” and “to win money”; however, the top reasons reported for pathological gambling were “to relax”, “to distract myself from problems” and “to improve mood”. Male gender, cognitive distortions regarding gambling, having parents who gamble and gamble too excess, using alcohol regularly, and smoking regularly were characteristics significantly associated with pathological gambling in adolescence.

ALL OR NOTHING: VIDEO LOTTERY TERMINAL GAMBLING AND ECONOMIC RESTRUCTURING IN RURAL NEWFOUNDLAND

The sudden collapse of the cod fishery off Canada's east coast in the early 1990s directly affected the livelihoods of more than 30,000 fishers and fish-processing plant workers in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador. In response to the crisis, the federal government closed the fishery and introduced a series of adjustment programs with the aim of reducing capacity in the industry and encouraging displaced people to seek employment elsewhere. This article examines how a small group of people living in a fishery-dependent region on the east coast of Newfoundland began using free-spending video lottery terminal gambling as a way to engage with these efforts to downsize and restructure their industry. Despite the personal and financial strains that regular gambling often created, the communal spending associated with it became a way in which some people sought to affirm local ties and critique neoliberal adjustment programs designed to encourage mobility, personal ambition, and sound financial management. The power of this critique was, however, contingent on the capacity of the core players to continue to define their behaviour as an exercise in solidarity. This idea was perpetually undermined by government programs and media stories, which presented heavy gambling as an individual weakness or addiction, and by the increasing social stratification that accompanied the restructuring of the fishing industry, making the disparities between gamblers much more difficult to hide.

Sensation seeking in a French population of pathological gamblers: comparison with regular and nongamblers.

To test the hypothesis that pathological gamblers in the French general population who play games available in cafés score lower on sensation seeking than regular and nongamblers, the Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale was administered to 57 diagnosed pathological gamblers, 40 regular gamblers, and a control group of 97 nongamblers. Whereas pathological gamblers did not obtain a significantly lower Sensation Seeking mean than the regular and nongamblers groups, analysis indicated that those pathological gamblers seek different and multiple forms of games to reduce boredom, but they do not necessarily seek excitement-generating activities. One possible interpretation is that the types of games investigated in this study are "passive" forms of games that required low involvement from the gamblers.

The stubborn logic of regular gamblers: obstacles and dilemmas in cognitive gambling research.

Cognitive studies into gambling behaviour have shown that many gamblers misinterpret the odds of gambling activities, hold false beliefs about skill and luck, and over-estimate their subjective chances of success. Accordingly, providing accurate information about gambling in venues, or on slot-machines, would appear to be a sensible way to enhance the 'safety' of gambling products. Unfortunately, such ideas for educating gamblers may be difficult to implement in practice because of limitations and conceptual dilemmas in the cognitive literature. Irrational beliefs about gambling may be difficult to falsify, are often highly idiosyncratic and context-bound, and may stem more from the selective misuse of information than from a lack of knowledge about gambling activities. Drawing evidence from recent research into gambling-related cognitions, this paper examines the key elements of irrational-belief systems, and how this work might usefully inform the design of future consumer information initiatives.

Why Adolescent Problem Gamblers Do Not Seek Treatment

ABSTRACT Prevalence studies indicate that approximately 40% of adolescents participate in regular gambling with rates of problem gambling up to four times greater than that found in adult populations. However, it appears that few adolescents actually seek treatment for such problems. The purpose of this study was to explore potential reasons why adolescents fail to seek treatment for gambling problems. A semi-structured interview that included diagnostic criteria for pathological gambling was administered to a sample of 265 adolescent school students. Only one of seven problem gamblers recognized his problem and none have sought help. From a youth perspective, it is clear that gambling does not constitute or is not perceived to represent a major problem in their daily routine. The reason that adolescents do not perceive gambling to be a problem may be linked to the absence of any major adverse consequences stemming from their gambling activities. These results indicate that efforts should be directed toward a primary prevention approach in reducing the impact of gambling problems.

Future directions for research into the psychological determinants of problem gambling patterns

Rapid increases in the availability of gambling have led to an increased recognition of problem gambling as a major public health concern. A growing body of empirical research has contributed greatly to current knowledge; however, most has centered on prevalence and on risk factors for problem gambling. In this paper, the authors argue for the need to extend the investigative scope of the gambling studies field to improve understanding the natural course of problem gambling over time and to the identification of psychosocial determinants of gambling patterns. Elucidating these issues would constitute an important first step in refining preventive and therapeutic efforts toward curbing possible increases in problem gambling and attendant consequences. Important research areas and methodologies identified in this paper are: large‐scale prospective studies using repeated measures, investigations into factors that may protect from or facilitate progression to problem gambling, especially factors that may be amenable to change, and broadening research samples to community‐based regular gamblers, particularly subclinical (in transition) individuals.

A prospective study of youth gambling behaviors.

Little is known about the course and outcomes of adolescent gambling. This prospective study describes findings from a 3-wave (Time 1 [T1], Time 2 [T2], and Time 3 [T3]) assessment of gambling behaviors among youth (N 305). Stable rates of any gambling and regular gambling (weekly or daily) were observed across T1, T2, and T3. The rate of at-risk gambling significantly increased at T3 (young adulthood), whereas the rate of problem gambling remained stable over time. Several adolescent risk factors were associated with either T3 at-risk or problem gambling, many of which are risk factors for adolescent substance abuse. Findings suggest that important to the origins of young adult gambling problems are risk factors associated with the problem behavior syndrome of adolescence. The rapid expansion and societal acceptance of legalized and high-stakes gambling have raised concerns among public health officials and researchers that underage gambling represents an elevated risk for the eventual development of problem gambling (Jacobs, 1989; National Research Council, 1999). These concerns have been advanced along three lines of evidence: epidemiological data on the prevalence of gambling involvement, epidemiological estimates of problem or pathological gambling, and cross-sectional studies on the psychosocial correlates of youth gambling. The epidemiological data suggest that youth gambling, like many behaviors during adolescence, occurs on a frequency continuum, ranging from no involvement to experimentation, occasional gambling, regular gambling, and preoccupation with serious adverse consequences (Stinchfield & Winters, 1998). Most youth have gambled at some time and typically at an early age, oftentimes in grade school (Ladouceur, Dube, & Bujold, 1994). Participation in legalized games is not uncommon (Winters, Stinchfield, & Fulkerson, 1993a), boys are more involved in gambling than girls, and older youth tend to gamble more often than younger teen-agers (e.g., Acuri, Lester, & Smith, 1985). Some studies have found racial– ethnic differences in youth gambling (Wallisch, 1993; Zitzow, 1996), including a recent study of Minnesota youth in which White and Asian high school students reported lower rates of gambling than the other ethnic groups (Stinchfield, Cassuto, Winters, & Latimer, 1997).

A prospective study of youth gambling behaviors.

Little is known about the course and outcomes of adolescent gambling. This prospective study describes findings from a 3-wave (Time 1 [T1], Time 2 [T2], and Time 3 [T3]) assessment of gambling behaviors among youth (N = 305). Stable rates of any gambling and regular gambling (weekly or daily) were observed across T1, T2, and T3. The rate of at-risk gambling significantly increased at T3 (young adulthood), whereas the rate of problem gambling remained stable over time. Several adolescent risk factors were associated with either T3 at-risk or problem gambling, many of which are risk factors for adolescent substance abuse. Findings suggest that important to the origins of young adult gambling problems are risk factors associated with the problem behavior syndrome of adolescence.

Induced mood and persistence at gaming

Using the affect infusion model (AIM), this study aimed to assess the impact of prior mood on gaming persistence in regular and non-regular gamblers (assumed to be motivated and heuristic decision-makers, respectively). DESIGN, MEASURES AND SETTING: A 2 x 3 experimental design in a laboratory setting employed factors of gambler type (regular, non-regular) and prior mood (happy, neutral, depressed). Measures were number of trials played on a gambling game, and mood ratings (post-mood induction, during and after play). Sixty regular and 60 non-regular gamblers (all male students) were assigned randomly to watch a video inducing one of the three mood conditions. They were then given AUD$10.00 to gamble in a computerized card-cutting game. AIM predictions were supported: prior mood did not affect gaming persistence for regular gamblers, but non-regulars showed reduced persistence across happy, neutral and depressed moods. After-play mood ratings were related to winnings for regulars, and losing regulars were significantly more unhappy after-play compared to during-play, and compared to both their winning counterparts and non-regulars. Mood and winnings were unrelated for non-regulars, with little during- to after-play mood change. The findings speak to depression as a causal factor in addictive gambling. Depressed mood did not enhance persistence in regular gamblers, but rather failed to have the inhibitory effect observed in non-regular gamblers. Evidence of mood changes during gambling was obtained, although multiple measures (self-report, physiological indicators, anticipated states) of both affective valence and arousal are advocated for future studies.

Casino gambling increases heart rate and salivary cortisol in regular gamblers

Background: Although the effects of gambling on cardiovascular parameters have been documented, no data exists describing the effect of gambling on stress hormone secretion. Our study investigated the effect of gambling on heart rate and salivary cortisol in a casino environment. Methods: Ten male gamblers participated in both an experimental and control session. In the experimental session, gamblers played a game of blackjack using their own money. Gamblers played cards in the same setting during the control condition; however, the game was played for accumulation of points rather than money. Heart rate and endocrine parameters were recorded at baseline, 30 min, and 60 min following commencement of each session, and again at completion of the game. Results: Heart rate increased significantly from baseline to 30 min in the experimental session and remained elevated for the remainder of the recording period. Salivary cortisol was raised at 30 min and further elevated at 60 min during gambling, then returned to control levels following completion of the game. Conclusions: These data indicate that gambling in a “real life” situation produces increases in salivary cortisol levels that accompany increased cardiovascular activity. Such effects may contribute to the development of gambling addiction.

Descriptive features of Turkish pathological gamblers.

This study investigated the descriptive features of Turkish pathological gamblers. Participants were 31 male pathological gamblers and 42 "regular gamblers" who acted as controls. The subjects were diagnosed on the basis of DSM-IV pathological gambling criteria and completed the Turkish Version of South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS). The nonpathological group was quite comparable with the pathological gambling group with respect to types and frequency of gambling and socio-demographic features. The data on the variables that defined and discriminated pathological gamblers from regular gamblers were collected through administration of a 68-item questionnaire, prepared by the authors. Compared to the non pathological gamblers, the pathological gamblers gambled more to recover their losses, experienced craving for gambling more often, gambled more often to obtain relief from disturbing emotions, harboured more irrational and unrealistic cognitions to rationalize their gambling behavior and suffered more emotionally, financially and socially as a result of their involvement in gambling. The results of the study suggested that Turkish pathological gamblers are very much like their counterparts in Western countries.

Contemporary issues and future directions for research into pathological gambling.

The recent healthy increase in research into all aspects of gambling is noted. The dominant theme accounting for most of this research is the mental disorder model of pathological gambling and measures that have been derived from this conceptualization. It is suggested that an alternative approach focusing on the construct of choice or subjective control over gambling may be a research direction that will ensure that progress is maintained. In this paper a context for the discussion is provided by first identifying briefly fundamental conceptual and methodological issues associated with the mental disorder model. In particular it is argued that the heterogeneity of the diagnosis of pathological gambling makes the research task of assessing truly independent variables extremely difficult. Subsequently an illustrative schema is presented that demonstrates both the potential advantages and some of the complexities associated with the dependent variable of self-control over gambling behaviour. The main advantages are argued to be (a) the focus of research is narrowed to one potential cause of harmful impacts rather than the great diversity of impacts themselves, (b) prospective studies of regular gamblers in real gambling venues may be a key source of insight into the development of pathological gambling and (c) it promotes the development of theoretical links with the mainstream of the discipline of psychology. Despite the conceptual difficulties that may be associated with the variable of self-control, it is suggested that these may be overcome because contemporary research into the addictive behaviours has demonstrated considerable success in the definition and measurement of control and related themes such as craving, restraint and temptation.

Predictors of Irrational Thinking in Regular Slot Machine Gamblers

Previous research has suggested that irrational thinking may play a central role in the maintenance of behavior in slot machine gambling (M. B. Walker, 1992b). The present study is an evaluation of the validity and predictors of irrational thinking in a sample of regular gamblers (N = 20) drawn from the general community. The results were generally consistent with earlier findings; 75% of gambling-related cognitions were found to be irrational. Irrationality was unrelated to the amount of money lost or won during sessions but was positively related to risk taking. The most common irrational cognitions included false beliefs concerning the extent to which outcomes could be controlled or predicted and the attribution of human qualities (personification) to gambling devices. Gender comparisons showed that women were more likely than men to personify the machines. The validity of the speaking-aloud approach and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Cognitive distortions in heavy gambling.

A sample of 38 regular and heavy gamblers, recruited through advertisements and not seeking treatment, were asked to describe special strategies, techniques or rituals that they used to increase their chances of winning at gambling in an open-ended interview. The mean South Oaks Gambling Screen Score for the sample was 7.7 with 64% of the sample scoring higher than 4. Their responses reflected multiple means by which the individual believed they were able to control (i.e., active illusory control, passive illusory control), reframe (i.e., interpretive control), or predict (i.e., probability control, predictive control) gambling outcomes. A larger number of cognitive distortions was associated with playing games in which skill was potentially a component (e.g., cards, sports) than in non-skill games (e.g., lotteries) as well as a positive family history of gambling. There were no sex differences. Implications of these findings for the cognitive psychopathology of gambling are discussed.

The role of subjective mood states in the maintenance of fruit machine gambling behaviour

Explanations involving the etiology of pathological gambling have tended to emphasize psychosocial factors. However, the possibility that psychobiological factors are important should not be ruled out. Two currently researched psychobiological approaches to gambling involve the role of (i) arousal and (ii) depression. A study analyzing the subjective mood variables of 60 gamblers (44 males and 16 females; mean age 23.4 years) using self report measures was carried out in an attempt to identify which mood states are critical to gambling maintenance. Results indicated that regular and pathological gamblers experienced more depressive moods before playing and that regular and pathological gamblers experienced significantly more excitement during gambling than non regular gamblers. These results are discussed in relation to contemporary literature regarding the roles of arousal and depression in the maintenance of gambling behaviour.

The role of cognitive bias and skill in fruit machine gambling

Although a single theory of the cognitive psychology of gambling is unlikely to fully explain persistent gambling, a number of recent studies have shown that there may be a strong cognitive bias involved in gambling behaviour. In this study a number of factors and variables relating to the cognitive psychology of fruit machine players were examined in 60 subjects (30 regular and 30 non‐regular gamblers) in a British amusement arcade. This involved the use of the ‘thinking aloud method’ and an examination of the role of skill using both objective (behavioural) and subjective (self‐report) measures. Results showed that regular gamblers produced significantly more irrational verbalizations than non‐regular gamblers, and that on subjective measures regular gamblers were significantly more skill oriented. Results of the objective measures demonstrated that with the same amount of money regular gamblers can gamble more times than non‐regular gamblers but this was not significant. The implications of these results are discussed and suggestions are made about the application of the results to the treatment of pathological gambling.