Regional Trade Research Articles (Page 1)

ABSTRACT This article explores hybrid threats in Georgia, focusing on the ruling Georgian Dream party and its extremist faction, People’s Power. Through narrative analysis, the article examines how these parties use political rhetoric linked to Russian propaganda in relation to the Anaklia deep-sea port project. The findings reveal that the actions of GD and PP have hindered the port’s development, maintaining Georgia’s infrastructure dependency and vulnerability to Russian influence. The analysis highlights the strategic significance of the port in diminishing Russian control over regional trade and addresses the complications introduced by China’s involvement, with important implications for Georgia’s EU integration.

The COVID-19 pandemic precipitated unprecedented economic challenges, particularly for Global South nations, characterised by disrupted trade, constrained fiscal space, and heightened debt vulnerabilities. This study conducts a comparative analysis of seven major regional trade blocs and economic cooperation groups SAARC, BRICS, G20, G7, Quad, EU, and SCO evaluating their contributions to economic recovery in the Global South from 2020 to 2024. Leveraging authentic statistical data from sources such as the IMF, World Bank, and UNCTAD, the research examines trade volumes, foreign direct investment (FDI), development finance, and GDP growth impacts. Findings indicate that BRICS and G20 have been pivotal in fostering recovery through innovative financial mechanisms and inclusive multilateralism, while SAARC’s impact remains limited due to geopolitical constraints. The study underscores the need for coordinated global economic strategies to ensure sustainable recovery in the Global South.

International trade is a major driver of shark overexploitation. In 2013, five threatened shark species were listed on Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species to regulate global trade and promote recovery. Once listed, any uncertified, unreported export of these species became illegal. Minimal trade was reported from 2015 to 2021, yet fins from four of these species were common in the world’s largest shark fin hub (Hong Kong) throughout this period, indicating substantial and sustained illegal trade. Seventy three of 90 shark fin–exporting nations (81%) have never reported any trade of these species. Mixed stock analysis of a market sample of fins from one listed species revealed six populations of origin but only three were from regions where trade was reported. Broader application of CITES compliance mechanisms is necessary to combat widespread illegal trade of shark fins and realize the conservation potential of these trade regulations.

Eastern India, particularly Bengal and to some extent northeast Andhra Pradesh, was a major hub in the Indian Ocean sugar trade. The fertile and well-watered areas of this vast region were able to meet the growing demand for sugar in the intra-Asian trade. Although sugar exports from Bengal began to decline in the second half of the eighteenth century, it continued to be consumed both locally and regionally. Little is known about the role of eastern India in the early modern regional and overseas sugar trade. This article makes a modest contribution to the region’s experience of commercial agriculture by describing sugarcane cultivation, sugar production and trade. It explains why the sugar export trade became marginal and how regional consumption remained resilient in the late eighteenth century. It sheds light on the region’s participation in intra-Asian trade, sugarcane cultivation and sugar production practices using data from the Dutch East India Company archives and other early colonial documents.

The United States withdraws from the Paris Climate Agreement again: Influences and challenges of sustainable development in Chinese Taiwan.

Digital pathways to sustainability: The role of Europe-Central Asia region's digitalization, trade, and geography maximizing sustainable development in China.

Energy collaborative optimization strategy for virtual power plants participating in green electricity trading and peak regulation ancillary services

Digital finance, financing constraints, and regional trade development

Liberalizing international agricultural trade has consistently been a difficult political proposition. After the establishment of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1948, it took nearly five decades for governments to collectively embark on agricultural reform, which began in 1995 within a multilateral setting following the successful conclusion of the Uruguay Round (UR) of negotiations. With respect to improving agricultural market access and tariff liberalization, two significant achievements of the UR – anchored in the WTO Agreement on Agriculture (AoA) – were the elimination of non-tariff border measures facilitated through the modality of tariffication, and the comprehensive binding of customs duties on all agricultural products in Members’ Schedules of Concessions. However, the immediate market access gains from the UR were relatively modest. To enable access to each other’s markets – particularly for sensitive sectors like grains, meat, dairy, and sugar, which had often been protected by non-tariff measures (NTMs) and were therefore subject to tariffication – participating Members established ‘minimum access opportunities’ equivalent to 5% of domestic consumption in importing countries, based on the 1986–88 reference period. In cases where countries already offered greater access than this threshold, they were required to maintain existing levels. To implement these minimum (or current) access commitments, Members in practice relied systematically on the instrument of tariff rate quotas (TRQs). More than one thousand TRQs were established in Members’ agricultural schedules under the UR, and they continue to play a key role in facilitating market access for highly sensitive products. TRQs allow exporters to access markets at lower tariffs – albeit up to an agreed quantity – thus offering political reassurance to importers against potential import surges. Interestingly, several regional trade agreements (RTAs) (such as free trade agreements or customs unions) also rely on TRQs to provide market access for sensitive agricultural products at reduced rates, rather than committing to full tariff elimination, as a way to address political sensitivities surrounding agricultural liberalization. This paper examines the important continuing role of TRQs in enabling agricultural tariff liberalization within the multilateral trading system, while also highlighting several practical concerns raised by exporting countries regarding the administration of TRQs by importing countries. The article also alludes to possible remedial mechanisms within the multilateral trading system to address these concerns. The reduction in tariffs over the years – and the resulting non-application of a majority of TRQs in several Members’ schedules of concessions, due to the loss of the tariff advantage they originally afforded – suggests a possible path forward: the elimination of dual tariffs under TRQs in favour of a single tariff.

Financial footsteps and carbon footprints: Analyzing the relationship between financial development and carbon inequality in China.

This paper considers the WTO Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies as an important step in the crossing of sustainable trade and ocean governance. The analysis is made of the legal, economic, and environmental impacts of the agreement in terms of its provision in reducing destructive subsidies causing overfishing and depletion of marine life. Utilizing doctrinal analysis of the terms of the agreement and review of applicable WTO principles found in international environmental law, this paper answers the question of whether the agreement is an opportunity to harmonize trade regulation with wider sustainability goals, including SDG 14. The study also imagines the logistical difficulties of implementation and enforcement, especially for developing and least developed countries, with admitting the capacity shortcomings and compliance problems inherent to this obligation. From the analysis, this study finds that despite the agreement’s unprecedented change towards trade governance through its binding provisions on the environment, the actualized outcome will lie in domestic implementation multiplicity, ventured negotiations of the remaining categories of subsidies, and cooperative mechanisms for the provision of technical assistance. The study concludes that the WTO Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies is also a first step to address the conflicting policies of trade liberalization and marine conservation and resource distribution.

ABSTRACT Digital services trade has emerged as a global growth engine and regional trade agreements have received increased attention for addressing digital trade issues. The Digital Economic Partnership Agreement (DEPA) stands as the pioneering international agreement exclusively dedicated to digital trade. It has established a high benchmark, with numerous countries indicating their willingness to become signatories. However, the empirical investigation of international regulations and standards' impact on digital trade remains understudied. This paper employs a time‐varying stochastic frontier gravity model and a trade inefficiency model to conduct an analysis of how complying with the provisions of DEPA Modules can affects the efficiency and potential of digital services trade between China and its 30 trading partners, using data from the years 2014 to 2019. The results indicate that fulfilling the provisions of DEPA Modules could significantly improve trade efficiency. Specifically, high tariff rates, a closed environment for e‐payment systems, and weaker protection of intellectual property rights can impede digital services trade. In contrast, higher penetration rates of secure internet servers and mobile cellular networks, and enhanced government effectiveness can promote trade efficiency. Therefore, complying with the DEPA Modular requirements yields benefits for digital services trade between China and its trading partners.

Wild animals sold as pets are at a higher risk of extinction than animals that are not traded. Invertebrates are often overlooked in national and international laws designed to control the global pet trade. Among these invertebrates, terrestrial isopods-which function as detritivores-have traditionally been kept to clean terraria housing vertebrates and other arthropods. Over the past 2 decades, they have gained popularity among hobbyists due to their ease of care, vibrant colors, minimal space requirements, and harmlessness to humans. Many traded species have limited distribution areas, sometimes only a single locality. Collecting these species in the wild poses a threat to local populations. Species are continuously being added to the online market. Many of these species, especially from tropical regions in Southeast Asia, Central America, and South America, have not been described scientifically. In addition to threatening native populations, this trade in live specimens increases the probability of non-native species introductions and invasions to new regions. Given this growing interest, we advocate for including terrestrial isopods in national and international regulations. We encourage scientists to assess the scale of the terrestrial isopod pet trade, scientifically describe traded species, and collect distribution and ecological data. We ask the International Union for Conservation of Nature to establish a terrestrial isopod specialist group to assess the status of traded species, which would facilitate their inclusion in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. We urge policy makers to make conservative lists of species that can be traded applying the precautionary principle in regulating the trade in species with an unknown conservation status and invasion risk.

ABSTRACT Following the continuous deepening of Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs), a key question arises: How does the deepening of RTAs reshape the location‐selection logic of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)? Using panel data for 224 global economies from 2009 to 2022, this study systematically examines the impact of deep RTAs on FDI. The study finds that deep RTAs significantly promote FDI inflows through three mechanisms: optimizing the investment environment, reducing trade costs, and rule competition. Specifically, for every 1% increase in World Trade Organization (WTO) + provisions, WTO‐X provisions, and number of revisions, FDI increases by 0.468%, 0.786%, and 1.031%, respectively. The study reveals significant heterogeneous effects: Key provisions such as “visa and protection” and “institutional framework and transparency” promote FDI significantly, and the promoting effect of cooperation between South–South countries is the strongest. The extended analysis shows that an increase in the number of RTAs generally enhances FDI attractiveness; however, this promoting effect gradually decreases over time, and neighboring countries' RTAs cause an investment transfer effect. In addition, only when the deepening degree of RTAs is in the top 10% can it significantly increase FDI inflows, with an average increase of up to 25.9%. This study provides empirical support for the high‐quality promotion of regional economic and trade cooperation and offers policy references for signing and deepening the path design of RTAs.

The Impact of Regional Trade Agreements on Frozen Tuna Exports from Taiwan: Evidence from Trade Creation and Trade Diversion

The 21st century has witnessed trade protection again, and the U.S. China trade war has been the best illustration of this. In this paper, a fresh look at the conflict is made in reference to the latest data until 2025. It relies on a qualitative case study which is based on trade statistics, policy papers and recent research. It is aimed at observing why protectionist regulations increased and how they transform international trade. The research concludes that tariffs are not only applied to stabilize trade but also to maintain technology superior, respond to supply chains and acquire political influence. Tariffs as well increase consumer prices, slack growth, damage export trade and undermine global trade regulations. The changes in the supply-chain, the industry policies implemented by the government and the weak World Trade Organization have evidence. This demonstrates why it is necessary to have improved cooperation and stronger nations. The paper concludes with the suggestions of how trade rules can be made more flexible.

With the rapid development of artificial intelligence (AI) technology, its application in regulatory oversight within the industrial and commercial sectors has become increasingly widespread. This article focuses on the practical needs of the industrial and commercial sectors in areas such as safety regulation and risk warning, systematically exploring the specific application pathways of AI technology, including video-based safety behavior monitoring and risk warning mechanisms based on big data analysis. The article analyzes the multiple advantages of AI in enhancing enforcement efficiency, improving the accuracy of risk identification, and reducing regulatory costs, while also pointing out the challenges it faces in terms of data acquisition and technological adaptability. To ensure the effective implementation of AI technology, this paper proposes strategies such as improving data integration mechanisms and strengthening the integration of AI technology with specific scenarios. The study concludes that in the future, AI should be deeply integrated with industrial and trade sector regulation under the multi-dimensional support of institutional frameworks, technological progress, and talent cultivation, thereby establishing a new model of intelligent regulation.

The “UMKM Go Export” program is a community engagement initiative aimed at improving the export readiness of Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) under the Komunitas Sukses Berjamaah Indonesia (KSBI). The one-day training was conducted using a participatory approach and adopted the “9 Steps to Enter Export Markets” curriculum, covering topics from business readiness, product standards, market mapping, international trade regulations, digital marketing, to export transactions and networking. Pre-test and post-test results showed a significant increase in knowledge, from 58.2 to 83.6. Around 80% of participants were able to draft a basic export plan, and 70% successfully created digital business accounts. Despite the short duration, participants' engagement in simulations, group discussions, and follow-up mentoring reinforced their readiness to compete globally. This program serves as a replicable model for empowering MSMEs in sustainable export development.

BackgroundThe practice of dog trade and butchery for human consumption is documented in some countries in Africa. Increasing demand for dog meat has resulted in increased transboundary movements of trade-dogs, which creates opportunities for the potential transmission of rabies. This study estimated the probability of rabies virus introduction into the dog slaughter environment, exposure among dog butchers, and the effectiveness of risk mitigation measures in Ghana and Nigeria.MethodsWe developed Quantitative Risk Analysis models for Ghana and Nigeria due to active within-country and transborder dog trade in both countries. The models quantified the risk of acquiring rabies among dog butchers in these countries and evaluated risk mitigation options, including butchers’ vaccination, education, use of personal protective equipment (PPE), and dog vaccination. The models were parameterized based on data from published reports on activities related to dog trade and butchery and live interviews with butchers in selected dog markets. Experts’ opinions were used for data triangulation, and sensitivity analyses were performed for variables in the models.ResultsEncounters with rabid dogs were much higher with the inclusion of transboundary dogs compared to in-country dogs only. This increased the probability estimates of rabies infection among butchers by 66.2% (6.5 to 10.8/850 butchers/yr) and 238.2% (16.5 to 55.8/1,750 butchers/yr) in Ghana and Nigeria, respectively. The probability of bite and consequent infection risk were key drivers of uncertainty in the models. Vaccination of 70% of the dog population as recommended by the World Health Organization could reduce butcher infections by 62% and 70% in Ghana and Nigeria, respectively. In comparison, appropriate post-exposure vaccination of butchers would reduce infections by 100% in both countries. Where optimal dog vaccination and subsidized butcher vaccination are nonexistent due to cost and other logistics, continuous butcher education combined with enforced use of PPE could drastically reduce exposure risk.ConclusionCreating awareness of the importance of dog trade and butchering as potential occupational sources of rabies transmission, and regulation of dog trade in affected countries are critical for the realization of the global target of “Zero Dog-Mediated Human Rabies by 2030”.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s42522-025-00169-1.

The tokay gecko (Gekko gecko) is a widely distributed lizard species in Southeast Asia, with significant importance in traditional medicine and the pet trade. Previous studies using mitochondrial DNA sequences revealed extensive genetic variation across its range, indicating the presence of distinct evolutionary lineages. In this study, we assessed the nuclear genetic variation and phylogenetic pattern of G. gecko using the recombination activating gene 1 (RAG1). We analyzed 105 RAG1 sequences from 16 localities across Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, along with additional sequences from GenBank. Sequence analysis revealed 20 variable sites and 20 haplotypes (TgR1-TgR20). Haplotype network and phylogenetic analyses revealed strong regional structuring and at least three distinct evolutionary lineages (A-C), supported by the species delimitation test (PTP). Both red- and black-spotted morphs were present in different clades, indicating that external coloration does not correspond to genetic differentiation at this locus. Our results support the presence of distinct evolutionary lineages in G. gecko and emphasize the importance of integrative taxonomy for accurate species delimitation. These findings have implications for conservation, sustainable management, and regulation of international trade in this commercially exploited species.