Reduce Freshwater Consumption Research Articles

Pilot study on liquid desiccant systems in greenhouse for water saving and climatecontrol

In regions with hot and arid climates, meeting the growing demands for irrigation and food production is crucial. Greenhouse farming offers a promising solution, significantly enhancing agricultural water efficiency by producing high-value crops with reduced freshwater consumption compared to traditional methods. However, the reliance on freshwater-dependent evaporative cooling systems in greenhouses poses a significant challenge, consuming up to 80 % of total freshwater usage. This challenge underscores the urgent need for innovative solutions to reduce freshwater use while maintaining optimal greenhouse conditions.This study proposes integrating a desiccant system with conventional evaporative cooling to improve humidity control and reduce freshwater consumption. This innovative approach enables greenhouse establishment in humid coastal areas previously deemed unsuitable, offering a sustainable alternative to traditional cooling methods. The proposed system includes liquid desiccant, desiccant pads, a chiller, and a fan, aiming to reduce or eliminate water use during nighttime cooling cycles. Additionally, the system has the potential to harvest water from ambient air, further reducing overall water consumption. Through this case study, we address the critical issue of freshwater overuse in greenhouse agriculture, presenting a solution that could revolutionize water management practices in arid and semi-arid regions.

Produced Water from the Oil and Gas Industry as a Resource—South Kuwait as a Case Study

Produced Water (PW) represents the largest waste stream in the oil and gas industry. As a water resource and as a source of valuable minerals such as alkali salts, it is has been highly under-valued, especially in hyper-arid regions. The beneficial use of PW ranges from water reinjection to elevated oil recovery from reservoirs with almost instantaneous returns, to the extraction of minerals from PW, which involves a number of different processes and setups. The economic value of PW-derived end products offers alternative revenue sources, with market fluctuations and conditions different from those of the hydrocarbon market. The end products of water and industrial salt support local industries such as agriculture, reflecting positively on the gross domestic product (GDP). Furthermore, resource extraction from PW of the oil and gas industry helps countries augment their circular economy. In this regard, the economic feasibility of three scenarios—the use of PW for oil recovery, the use of PW as an alternate source of water and industrial salt, and a hybrid process of both—is explored. The results show that there is great potential for water reuse in Enhanced Oil Recovery operations, as well as in the reduction in freshwater consumption for oil- and gas-extraction operations in the state of Kuwait by up to 4.8 percent when PW generated by SK oilfields is considered, and by 42 percent if PW from all oilfields in Kuwait is reused in the same manner.

Screening Rainwater Harvesting Potentialities in the EU Industrial Sector: A Framework for Site-Specific Assessment

The industrial sector’s water consumption is projected to increase by 400% by 2050, placing significant stress on freshwater reserves. To address this challenge, innovative solutions for water management are crucial. This paper proposes a comprehensive framework for Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) in industrial settings, offering a methodology to assess the potential for RWH implementation across EU industrial sites. The framework integrates internal and publicly available datasets, including EU climate change monthly average rainfall data from the Copernicus Climate Data Store, to create current and prospective scenarios for RWH. The methodology evaluates critical parameters co-created with industrial stakeholders, such as catchment area, water quality, and industrial water requirements. This approach allows for site-specific assessments, enabling industries to reduce freshwater consumption and support sustainability goals within the Horizon 2050 framework. Our findings indicate that implementing RWH systems can significantly contribute to a sustainable and circular economy by reducing annual freshwater consumption, promoting resource reuse, and lowering industrial water costs. This framework provides industries with a tool to assess RWH feasibility, supporting their efforts to prepare for increased water demands and contribute to environmental conservation.

Exploring urban water‐energy nexus: A case study of thermal power plants in Raichur and Ballari districts in Karnataka

AbstractThe paper provides a coupled framework of the water‐energy nexus for the water‐stressed Indian cities, weaving together multiple interlinked facets, such as the demand for drinking water, water withdrawal patterns, water‐related challenges in Thermal Power Stations (TPSs), and the benefits of using treated wastewater in TPSs. An integrated approach is suggested for maximizing the benefits of wastewater reclamation, while reducing the environmental impacts of inefficient water usage, specifically in TPSs, the largest water users in the industrial sector. This is particularly important for a developing country like India that faces declining water availability due to a growing population without commensurate increases in water‐use efficiency. Currently, India is the third largest electricity generator in the world, with coal‐fired TPSs accounting for more than 78% of the total generation (1715 TWh in 2021). This presents a case for an integrated approach to reduce freshwater consumption in TPSs located in the proximity of cities by using treated wastewater from sewage treatment plants (STPs). The integrated approach for utilizing wastewater in TPSs is a promising tail‐pipe initiative that can address multiple targets under the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 in conjunction with other interlinked Goals and their targets. The findings highlight that the suggested sustainable water management practices would lead to enhanced availability of potable water for the city dwellers, thereby addressing multiple targets under SDG 6 along with a few other consequential dimensions including affordable electricity.

A comprehensive and molecular level evaluation of treated wastewater reusing via drip systems: Interactions of dissolved ions and hydraulic shear stresses on calcium carbonate scaling

To overcome the global water shortage, the treated wastewater is increasingly utilized in agricultural irrigation, and thus reducing freshwater consumption and increasing the water sustainability. Drip irrigation technology is the most appropriate irrigation method to utilize these water sources. However, its operating performance is negatively affected by calcium carbonate (CaCO3) scaling, which is one of the most dominant precipitations and also closely related to dissolved ions and the hydraulic characteristics inside irrigation systems. Thus, the effects of eight common dissolved ions (K+, Mg2+, Mn2+, Zn2+, Fe3+, NO3−, SO42−, and PO43−) in these water sources and four hydraulic shear stresses (0, 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 Pa) on CaCO3 scaling formation were assessed in this study. Results showed that CaCO3 scaling was primarily formed of calcite and aragonite. Fe3+ would significantly accelerate the CaCO3 scaling accumulation, as it reduced the unit cell volume and chemical bonds of calcite, enhancing calcite adhesion and stability. On the other hand, Mg2+, Mn2+, NO3−, SO42−, and PO43− significantly inhibited CaCO3 scaling. Among them, Mg2+, Mn2+, and PO43− followed the typical water chemical precipitation rule, while NO3− increased water molecule diffusion rate and thus decreased the possibility that Ca2+ and CO32− to precipitate. SO42− grabbed the binding point belonging to CO32− and was adsorbed on the calcite crystal, which inhibited crystal growth. However, those treatments under K+ and Zn2+ did not reach a significant level due to their solubleness. During the precipitation of CaCO3, there were significant (p < 0.01) interactions between dissolved ions and hydraulic shear stresses. When hydraulic shear stresses varied, the effects of Fe3+ and SO42− on the CaCO3 scaling were relatively weakened, while that of Mg2+ was relatively strengthened. In return, dissolved ions affected the effect of hydraulic shear stresses on CaCO3 scaling. Overall, the results obtained could provide theoretical reference for high-efficiency utilization of treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation through the management of CaCO3 scaling.

Perceived distributive fairness and public acceptance of a policy mandating on-site wastewater treatment and reuse

Throughout the world, climate change, rapid population growth, and urbanisation raise the need for reducing freshwater consumption. One solution are on-site systems that treat wastewater for non-potable reuse near its source of generation, for example within a building. Policies mandating their installation can effectively increase installation rates and have been implemented in several cities. Yet, such policies have the potential to impair distributive fairness in society and therefore also policy acceptance, because usually they cover only part of the population, which then has to carry most costs and risks. On the example of Bengaluru, India, where such a policy exists, this online study (N = 350) analysed whether policy acceptance can be explained by the perceived policy outcome for different groups of society (i.e. the distribution of the policy’s costs, risks, and benefits among these groups), and whether this relation is mediated by perceived fairness. We further investigated whether these relations differed between participants covered and those not covered by the policy, since being personally affected may influence perceptions. Specifically, the outcomes for the following six groups were included: 1) participants themselves, 2) people covered by the policy, 3) people with a low income who are covered by the policy, 4) people vulnerable to water insecurity who are covered by the policy, 5) all inhabitants of Bengaluru taken together, and 6) the environment and future generations. A moderated mediation analysis showed that higher acceptance of the policy was explained by a higher perceived fairness, which, in turn, was explained by a better perceived outcome of the policy for different groups of society. Covered and non-covered participants differed with regard to which groups of society they considered for evaluating fairness. While a better perceived outcome for residents covered by the policy (compared with the outcome for those not covered) explained perceived fairness among all participants, it explained acceptance only among participants not covered by the policy. Further, and only among participants covered by the policy, perceived fairness was additionally explained by better perceived outcomes for the environment and future generations, which also explained higher acceptance among covered participants. It is discussed whether in the specific context, collective considerations may be more relevant than self-centred considerations to the perception of fairness and acceptance of the policy.

Integration of sequential electrocoagulation and adsorption for effective removal of colour and total organic carbon in textile effluents and its utilization for seed germination and irrigation.

Textile effluent discharge can negatively impact the environment and living organisms due to its potential toxicity, higher percentages of total organic carbon (TOC) contents, and so on. The study investigates the extraordinary performance of the electrocoagulation process (ECP) combined with powdered activated carbon (PAC) as a highly effective and environmental friendly method of treating textile effluents. This scientific work mainly includes the focus on removing toxic components in textile effluents, such as high concentrations of colour and TOC using synthesized PAC derived from coconut shells coupled with the ECP (ECP-PAC). Initially, PAC was characterized by using XRD, Raman, BET, FTIR, and TGA studies. Subsequently, the pilot-scale ECP-PAC batch reactor was constructed with iron (Fe) as an anode and copper (Cu) as a cathode. The pilot-scale ECP-PAC batch reactor has achieved higher treatment efficiency in a shorter reaction time with low energy consumption compared to a stand-alone ECP. Further, the optimum conditions for effective ECP-PAC have been optimized, such as pH 7.5, applied current density (0-50mA/cm2), reaction time (0-30min), electrode combinations (Fe-Cu) with electrode distances of 5cm apart, and an optimum dose of 5g/L of PAC. Specifically, 98% of the colour and 96% of the TOC contents present in the industrial textile effluent were treated in 15 and 30min, respectively. In quantitative perspectives, the developed batch reactor has sharply decreased TOC (324.1mg/L), IC (1410mg/L) and TC (1019mg/L) to 13.55mg/L (96%), 31.49mg/L (97%), and 48.05mg/L (95%), respectively, in 30min demonstrating its sensitivity and selectivity with the utmost care. Moreover, the physicochemical properties of the treated water were convincingly assessed. That is, it remains suitable for the seed germination of mung bean and chlorophyll content study. Thus, the developed methodology could effectively reduce freshwater consumption in the agricultural sector, increase freshwater availability in water-scarce regions, and facilitate the increase of the recharging capacity of groundwater tables.

INTEGRATING RAINWATER HARVESTING AND GREYWATER RECYCLING TO INCREASE WATER EFFICIENCY IN OFFICE BUILDINGS

Water is an essential component of existence. It is one of the primary resources for maintaining a daily presence. Due to high demand, freshwater becomes limited; therefore, rainwater harvesting and greywater recycling should be implemented as an alternative to substituting freshwater consumption for non-potable activities. This study discusses the implementation of rainwater harvesting and greywater recycling and the contribution to water efficiency and the environment. The main objectives of this paper are to explicate the potential benefits of integrating rainwater harvesting and greywater recycling in office buildings and to elucidate the impact of water conservation from office buildings on the environment. The result shows that implementing both systems in buildings can reduce freshwater consumption, water saving, and the discharge of wastewater to the environment, which is an essential point for water efficiency. The findings can serve as a reference for stakeholders, as they can reduce the freshwater consumption for non-potable activities and increase the water efficiency of buildings, thereby alleviating freshwater scarcity in the future.

Treatment of brackish water for fossil power plant cooling

In this study, we evaluated the technical, economic and environmental impacts of retrofitting brackish groundwater treatment systems at existing coal- and gas-fired electric generating units (EGUs) to reduce freshwater consumption in wet cooling towers. Based on fleet averages, retrofitting brackish water treatment systems decreases unit freshwater consumption by 94–100%, while increasing the cost of electricity generation by 8–10%. The unit capacity shortfalls are less than 1.1%. The resulting cost of freshwater consumption savings by brackish water treatment is US$1.7 m−3 and US$2.9 m−3 on average for coal- and gas-fired EGUs, respectively. However, these trade-offs are highly affected by the brine disposal method. The use of thermal zero liquid discharge for brine disposal can roughly double the average cost of freshwater consumption savings. The cost-effectiveness of brackish water treatment compared with dry cooling deployment depends on how concentrated brines are managed. The identified trade-offs and their dependence fill knowledge gaps to better inform water management. This study reveals trade-offs in freshwater savings, cost and capacity shortfalls from deploying treated brackish water for wet thermoelectric cooling, as well as its cost-effectiveness, relative to dry cooling retrofit, in saving freshwater.

Optimization of Urban Water Consumption in Residential Buildings

Water scarcity is a global issue that is rapidly worsening. Many researchers have explored various approaches to promote sustainable uses of water, with Greywater (GW) recycling and utilization of innovative plumbing fixtures being among the methods presented to reduce freshwater consumption for domestic usage. Nonetheless, previous studies have dealt with both means independently, without studying the integrated effect of utilizing both GW recycling and innovative plumbing fixtures together both on the quality of supplied water, as well as on the cost of the integrated system. Accordingly, this research aims at improving the efficiency of water usage in residential buildings through the development of a mathematical optimization model that utilizes a constructed database in order to select the most appropriate GW recycling system, plumbing fixtures and system components with the aim of improving the water quality, minimizing the water usage and reducing the cost. The developed model is divided into three main modules: input, water flow and annual worth quantification. The model was verified on a case study, and sensitivity analysis was performed to explore the impact of changing major input factors on the total annual cost. A factorial design examining both two- and three-factor interactions was used. The number of residents and the annual increase in water tariffs factors had the most significant impact on the total annual worth, accounting for 55% and 43.7% of the total variability, respectively. Furthermore, the model was validated by comparing its results with a previous study conducted in the United Kingdom, where the developed model presented a significant reduction of the lifecycle cost of the decentralized water system in residential buildings and attained freshwater savings of 58.17%.

Reuse of mine and ore washing wastewater in scheelite flotation process to save freshwater: Lab to industrial scale

This paper describes an economical and eco-friendly technology that utilises carbide slag to treat mine and ore washing wastewater (MOW) and reuses the treated wastewater in a scheelite flotation circuit. The results of systematic bench-scale and industrial-scale experiments indicate that the wastewater reuse process can reliably improve the WO3 grade with negligible effect on the recovery of scheelite. At the Yuanjing processing plant, the WO3 enrichment ratio improved from 17.4 to 23.6 and the recovery was maintained at approximately 79.2 % when recycled wastewater was used. The fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analyses consistently implied that the interaction between the collector of sodium oleate and scheelite in the recycled wastewater was stronger than that in plant water. Specifically, the adsorption of Ca2+ on the scheelite surface and the formation of colloidal complexes by Ca2+ and oleate ions were responsible for the superior selectivity, while the gangue minerals such as quartz were effectively depressed by the depressant of water glass. Consequently, the treated MOW could be a suitable alternative to reduce freshwater consumption in mining areas, which is of great significance for the mining and mineral processing industries.

Reducing freshwater consumption in pulp and paper industries using pinch analysis and mathematical optimization

The pulp and paper (P&P) industries are classified among the water-intensitive industries. In this work, implementation of the Water Closed-Loop System (WCLS) in a P&P factory to reduce water consumption and wastewater generation was reported. First, the water and steam network of the mill was synthesized, and water sinks and sources along with their flowrates were identified. The key pollutants, including chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solids (TSS), and total dissolved solids (TDS), were pinpointed and acceptable levels for water sinks were acquired. In the second step, by using water pinch analysis with the direct-reuse approach, each limiting pollutant was investigated, and the maximum reduction in freshwater consumption equal to 36.9 % was obtained by considering TSS as the only pollutant. The minimum potential for reducing water consumption belonged to COD (4.0 %) and TDS (18.9 %). In the regeneration-reuse approach, the incomplete performance of the mill's treatment plant in removing COD and TDS resulted in no improvement in the results of the previous step. In the case of TSS alone, the reduction in freshwater consumption increased to 93.3 %. Mathematical optimization was used to study all limiting contaminants simultaneously. The direct-reuse approach achieved a 4.0 % reduction in water consumption, while the regeneration-reuse did not change water consumption compared to the direct-reuse approach, emphasizing the incomplete operation of the treatment plant. Finally, the output contaminants levels of a hypothetical decentralized and modified existing treatment plant were estimated using literature. In this case, the freshwater consumption of the mill declined by 93 %.

Rainwater Harvesting for Water Conservation in Sanur’s Tourism Harbour Building: A SWMM Simulation

This study focuses on the implementation of rainwater harvesting as a water conservation alternative in the Sanur International Tourism Harbour Building. The research was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of this technique in reducing the building’s dependence on freshwater resources and to determine its potential as a sustainable water management solution. The implementation of rooftop rainwater harvesting was considered, and SWMM (Storm Water Management Model) simulation was used to model the hydrological processes, including rainfall, runoff, and infiltration in the study area. The model was calibrated using observed rainfall data collected from the vicinity. The results of the SWMM simulation showed that the rainwater harvesting system was effective in reducing the building’s dependence on freshwater resources and that the system can collect an estimated 41.58 m3 of rainwater. This amount is deemed sufficient to support and overall reduce freshwater consumption and contribute to the conservation of freshwater resources in the area. The study demonstrated the potential of rainwater harvesting as an effective water conservation method for buildings in Sanur, Bali. The implementation of such a system can not only reduce freshwater consumption but also contribute to sustainable water management practices in the region.

An insight-based approach for batch water network with flexible production scheduling framework

Batch chemical plants play an important role in the chemical and pharmacy industry. Efficient water management is becoming increasingly important in batch production systems because of the stricter environmental regulations and rising costs of water utilization activities. In this work, an insight-based method is proposed to effectively utilize the water in batch chemical plant with flexible scheduling framework. First, Pinch Analysis for continuous process is extended to targeting the freshwater requirement of batch processes. Second, a matrix of source-sink matches is constructed based on insight from Pinch Analysis. Some heuristic rules are defined to select the matches of water sinks and sources in order to reduce the connections and meet the time constraints. Thirdly, initial water network is designed based on the chosen matches and the timing of batch operations is determined based on the water reuse. Four illustrative examples adopted from the literature are investigated based on the proposed method. Results show that flexible product scheduling is useful to reduce freshwater consumption and batch operation time. The proposed method could be used to assist wastewater recovery in flexible batch plant.

The Effectiveness of the Implementation of Research Results in a Technological Scheme of Water Purification

Abstract The paper proposes technical solutions for the use of the reagent method of water preparation at coke plants in order to bring it to a quality suitable for use in the circulating water supply system of the PJSC Kharkiv Coke Plan. It is proposed to dilute phenolic water in a biochemical installation in a mixer before purification and to purify water with a flocculant. The paper recommends dosing the flocculant solution automatically using a preparation station. Additional purification of the clarified water is carried out using a filtration unit with a filter media from a layer of quartz sand. The economic effect from the implementation of the technical measures is achieved not only due to the reduction in fresh water consumption by 60 540 m3/year and the cessation of the discharge of phenolic water into the city sewer network, but also the replacement of the reagent with a more efficient one and a decrease in its consumption. It has been found that the introduction of the technical solutions for the circulating water supply system is economically and environmentally justifiable.

Removing chemical and biological pollutants from swine wastewater through constructed wetlands aiming reclaimed water reuse

Reusing reclaimed wastewater is needed to fight water scarcity, reduce freshwater consumption and conserve water resources, but one must ensure that hazardous substances are fully removed/eliminate before that reuse. The potential of lab-scale constructed wetlands (CWs) for the removal of chemical and biological contaminants from livestock wastewater, while maintaining nutrient levels for fertilization, was assessed, evaluating changes in microbial communities, with particular focus on potential pathogens. CW microcosms with two different substrates (lava rock or light expanded clay aggregate), both planted with Phragmites australis, were tested. After 15 days of treatment, removal rates were higher than 80% for Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb and Zn, in general with no significant differences between the two different substrates. Organic matter and nutrients were also removed but their levels still allowed the used of the treated wastewater as a fertilizer Removal of bacterial contamination was estimated through enumeration of cultivable bacteria. High removal rates of fecal indicator bacteria were observed, reaching >95% for enterococci and >98% for enterobacteria after 15 days of treatment, decreasing hazardous biological contaminants initially present in the wastewater. In addition, the microbial communities in the initial and treated wastewater, and in the plant roots bed substrate, were characterized by using 16SrRNA gene amplicon sequencing. Microbial communities in the CW systems showed a clear shift comparatively with the initial wastewater showing system adaptation and removal potentialities. This also revealed an important removal of the most represented potential pathogenic genus, Clostridium, which relative abundance decreased from 33% to 1% through the treatment. Overall, CWs showed potential to be efficient in removing chemical and biological contaminants, while maintaining moderated levels of nutrients, allowing the reuse of reclaimed water in agriculture, namely as fertilizer. Current results will contribute for the optimization and use of CWs for a sustainable treatment of liquid wastes, promoting the circular economy.

Rheological Study of Seawater-Based Fracturing Fluid Containing Polymer, Crosslinker, and Chelating Agent.

Freshwater is usually used in hydraulic fracturing as it is less damaging to the formation and is compatible with the chemical additives. In recent years, seawater has been the subject of extensive research to reduce freshwater consumption. The study aims to optimize the rheology of seawater-based fracturing fluid with chemical additives that reduce the formation damage. The studied formulation consists of a polymer, a crosslinker, and a chelating agent to reduce seawater hardness. We used a standard industry rheometer to perform the rheology tests. By comparing five distinct grades [hydroxypropyl guar (HPG) and carboxymethyl hydroxypropyl guar (CMHPG)], we selected the guar derivative with the best rheological performance in seawater. Five different polymers (0.6 wt %) were hydrated with seawater and freshwater to select the suitable one. Then, the best performing polymer was chosen to be tested with (1.6, 4, and 8 wt %) N, N-dicarboxymethyl glutamic acid GLDA chelating agent and 1 wt % zirconium crosslinker. In the first part, the testing parameters were 120 °C temperature, 500 psi pressure, and 100 1/s shear rate. Then, the same formulations were tested at a ramped temperature between 25 and 120 °C. We observed that higher and more stable viscosity levels can be achieved by adding the GLDA after polymer hydration. In seawater, an instantaneous crosslinking occurs once the crosslinker is added even at room temperature, while in freshwater, the crosslinker is activated by ramping the temperature. We noted that, in the presence of a crosslinker, small changes in the chelating agent concentration have a considerable impact on the fluid rheology, as demonstrated in ramped temperature results. It is observed that the viscosities are higher and more persistent at lower concentrations of GLDA than at higher concentrations. The study shows the rheological response when different chemical additives are mixed in saline water for hydraulic fracturing applications.

Paper industry wastewater treatment by electrocoagulation and aspect of sludge management

The paper production process comprises various manufacturing steps and generates an enormous amount of effluent, which consists of a large variety of contaminated chemicals. The higher color and chemical oxygen demand (COD) of the wastewater create a negative effect on all living forms and the natural environment. Electrocoagulation is a versatile process for the elimination of color and COD content from wastewater. In this study, the EC treatment has been used to identify the ideal conditions using several process variables such as pH, current density, time, and the dose of electrolyte. COD and color were reduced by up to 68% and 94%, respectively. Afterward, the treated water was compared with the standards of the world health organization (WHO) and the central pollution control board (CPCB) to find out the suitability of treated water for reuse for farming purposes. Germination tests of mung beans were conducted, and it was observed that the EC treated water is suitable for irrigation. The corrosion rate of mild steel was determined to be 2.85 mils/year, which has shown the short life span of mild steel electrodes. Furthermore, sludge produced by the EC process was analyzed and characterized for physicochemical analyses by using a variety of analytical techniques. The 69.93% iron content of the sludge was also recovered using the acid digestion method. After the physicochemical analyses, it was observed that sludge could also be utilized as a compelling supplement for plant growth, energy recovery, and industrial applications. According to this study, treated water could be a powerful alternative for reducing freshwater consumption in agricultural areas and increasing water availability in water-scarce areas. Effect of operating parameters on electrocoagulation treatment of pulp and paper industry wastewater, treated water and sludge management. • The higher COD and color 68% and 94%, respectively, were removed from wastewater by using EC treatment. • The greater removal of pollutants occurred at a near neutral pH. • It was observed that there was an encouraging improvement in the biodegradability index of wastewater after EC process. • Treated water is found to be suitable for reuse in agriculture. • The produced sludge could be a compelling supplement for plant growth, energy recovery, and industrial applications.

Risk of Legionellosis in residential areas around farms irrigating with municipal wastewater.

The conservation of freshwater is of both global and national importance, and in the United States, agriculture is one of the largest consumers of this resource. Reduction of the strain farming puts on local surface or groundwater is vital for ensuring resilience in the face of climate change, and one possible option is to irrigate with a combination of freshwater and reclaimed water from municipal wastewater treatment facilities. However, this wastewater can contain pathogens that are harmful to human health, such as Legionella pneumophila, which is a bacterium that can survive aerosolization and airborne transportation and cause severe pneumonia when inhaled. To assess an individual adult's risk of infection with L. pneumophila from a single exposure to agricultural spray irrigation, a quantitative microbial risk assessment was conducted for a scenario of spray irrigation in central Illinois, for the growing seasons in 2017, 2018, and 2019. The assessment found that the mean risk of infection for a single exposure exceeded the safety threshold of 10-6 infections/exposure up to 1km from a low-pressure irrigator and up to 2km from a high-pressure irrigator, although no median risk exceeded the threshold for any distance or irrigator pressure. These findings suggest that spray irrigation with treated municipal wastewater could be a viable option for reducing freshwater consumption in Midwest farming, as long as irrigation on windy days is avoided and close proximity to the active irrigator is limited.

Rainwater Harvesting Systems That Reduce Water Consumption With Optimal Locations of Solar Concentration Power Plants

At present, the increase in population has caused an increase in the demand for electrical energy, which creates saturation in the national electrical system. In addition to this, the main source of energy for the generation of electricity is fossil fuels, which causes environmental pollution problems due to the increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases. To counteract the negative environmental impact, new energy sources that are friendlier to the environment have been sought, such as solar energy through power generation plants using solar concentrators. In this sense, this research proposes a mathematical optimization model to determine the feasibility of installing electric power generation plants through solar concentrators, to satisfy the energy demand in cities with the highest demand for electric power in the state of Michoacán. The proposed model considers the availability of water resources, the demand for energy, the costs involved for the installation of power generation plants, and the sizing of water collection systems to reduce the consumption of fresh water that is extracted from natural sources. It is a linear integer mixed programming model, where two scenarios are analyzed, considering variation in the operating time of the thermal storage system and the incorporation of the rainwater harvesting system to reduce freshwater consumption. The results show that 237,600 MW can be produced by installing three of the six power generation plants considered and considering a 19 h operation with thermal storage, generating a profit from the sales of the energy produced of 6,326,700 USD/year. Likewise, with the sizing of the rainwater harvesting system, it is possible to collect 1,678 m3 for the operation of the three determined power generation plants.