Introduction The growing population of bilingual children and lack of bilingual clinicians have created an increased need for reliable and accessible bilingual language assessment to accurately detect language delays and disorders globally. To address this growing need, this study evaluated the Mandarin-English Receptive Language Screener (MERLS), a web-based receptive language assessment designed for bilingual Mandarin-English (ME) speaking children. Methods Using a citizen science approach, bilingual ME speaking parents based in the United States served as the test administrators. This two-phase study compared bilingual ME speaking children’s performance and parent-child interactions across in-person ( n = 16) and telehealth ( n = 43) settings. Participants in both phases were typically developing children aged 3–10 years who used Mandarin and English for at least 20% of their daily communication. Results In Phase I (in-person), despite variability in parent behaviors during administration, parent-administered assessments demonstrated comparable test-retest reliability (Pearson correlation: r = 0.95, p < 0.01) and item-by-item agreement (82%) to researcher-administered assessments. These reliability metrics are comparable to those of established standardized child language assessments (e.g., PPVT-5 and the QUILS). In Phase II (telehealth), platform improvements (e.g., educational quizzes and videos on proper test administration) significantly reduced interfering parent behaviors (Mandarin items: W = 485 , p = 0.004; English items: W = 482 , p = 0.003) without affecting children’s test performance. Discussion These results support the feasibility of using a citizen science approach and a digital assessment platform MERLS for parent-administered language assessments. Such innovative assessment approach has great potentials to increase access to accurate and reliable language assessment services for bilingual ME speaking children in the United States. The findings offer clinical and technical insights for developing bilingual child language assessments across both in-person and telehealth settings.

CDKL5 deficiency disorder (CDD) is a rare X-linked developmental and epileptic encephalopathy caused by loss-of-function variants in the CDKL5 gene. Preclinical experiments using enzyme replacement or gene therapies show promise and could be transformative therapies. This precompetitive consortium sought to harmonize nonseizure clinical endpoint selection for efficacy trials. Clinical Assessment of Neurodevelopmental Measures in CDD (CANDID) is an ongoing study evaluating the feasibility and suitability of neurocognitive tests and functioning scales in CDD patients. CANDID is a 3-year, longitudinal, noninterventional global study involving children and adults with CDD. On-site and remote visits include clinical, behavioral, developmental, and quality of life assessments. We enrolled 112 patients (111 included in analyses); mean age = 8.3 years (range <1-28); 93% female; 10 participants were ≥18 years old. In the first 28 days, 82% had >16 seizures; six were seizure-free. Median seizure onset was at 1.5 months (range = 0-66). Patients used an average of 2.6 antiseizure medications at baseline. The most frequent comorbidities included gastrointestinal hypomotility, muscle tone abnormalities, and sleep disorders. Gross Motor Function Measure-88 (GMFM-88) scores indicated a floor effect in crawling, standing, and walking across all ages. Vineland-3 and Bayley-4 scores could be derived in most, with receptive language, interpersonal relationships, and fine and gross motor scores increasing with age. Bruni sleep questionnaire identified sleep initiation, sleep-awake transition, and excessive somnolence as the most disrupted components across all age groups. The mean Quality of Life Inventory-Disability total scores ranged from 53% to 64%, the independence domain being the most impacted. The scales in the CANDID study capture disease-related deficits and phenotype variability in CDD. Floor effects in subdomains aligned with disease severity. The GMFM-88 lacks granularity, and its operational limitations make it unsuitable for CDD trials. Baseline analyses demonstrate the feasibility and potential value of most selected scales, supporting their use in optimizing trial design and endpoint selection for future CDD clinical trials.

The aetiology of childhood motor speech disorders of dysarthria and apraxia has been poorly understood. Recent evidence suggests a moderate genetic contribution for these rare and severe speech disorders. To date, however, no studies have examined genetic diagnostic yield for childhood apraxia of speech (CAS) and dysarthria in a clinical setting. Here, we used a clinically accredited genomics pipeline to investigate genetic diagnostic yield and variables predictive of a genetic diagnosis in a tertiary hospital speech clinic. A cohort of 153 children (range 2;7-16;5 years, 42 female) ascertained for motor speech disorder were assessed by a clinical geneticist and speech pathologist and underwent chromosomal microarray, Fragile X and exome sequencing. Odds ratios identified predictors of genetic diagnosis. 44/153 (29%, 15 female) had pathogenic variants (30 de novo), encompassing monogenic conditions (n = 35) and copy number variants (n = 9) across 38 distinct disorders. Delayed walking, fine and gross motor disorder, receptive language impairment and/or cognitive impairment, and dysmorphism were associated with a genetic diagnosis. The presence of CAS and dysarthria was more commonly associated with a genetic diagnosis than CAS alone. Autism spectrum disorder was less commonly associated with a genetic diagnosis. No child had a Fragile X diagnosis. The clinical genetic diagnostic yield for motor speech disorders is comparable to epilepsy and cerebral palsy, conditions where genetic testing is routine in most centres, unlike for motor speech disorders. Children with motor speech disorder with co-occurring motor, language and/or learning deficits, should be prioritised for genomic testing.

The pleasurable urge to move to music ("groove") has been shown to be greatest for moderately complex musical rhythms. This is thought to occur because temporal predictions from the motor system reinforce our perception of the beat when there is a balance between expectation and surprise. The supplementary motor area (SMA) has been identified as the potential origin of these temporal predictions. Thus, to causally test the role of the SMA in the experience of groove, we used continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS) to disrupt activity in this region or an active control site (V1). Nonmusicians listened to and rated musical clips that varied in rhythmic complexity and groove before and after stimulation. Following inhibitory stimulation over the left SMA, participants preferred moving to music with higher rhythmic complexity while after V1 stimulation, they preferred moving to music with lower rhythmic complexity. Pleasure ratings, however, were unaffected. These results suggest that the SMA weighs the precision of beat-based predictions generated by the dorsal auditory stream. Therefore, stimulating the SMA may have disinhibited the dorsal striatum or other nodes generating the beat-based predictions. In summary, these findings provide causal evidence that the SMA and V1 play critical roles in embodied rhythm processing.

The Bilingual Input-Output Survey (BIOS)-Home (Peña et al., 2018) is used to provide speech-language pathologists (SLPs) with an estimate of children's exposure to two languages. The current hour-by-hour approach of the BIOS can be time consuming to administer and calculate. The current study seeks to improve the efficiency of the BIOS-Home by replicating Calandruccio et al.'s (2021) finding that the BIOS can be shortened by time periods around children's routines and extending these findings by preliminarily exploring the relationship of the shortened BIOS with results of a bilingual screener. The current study includes 1,337 Spanish-English bilingual children from two data sets. Children's ages ranged from 49 to 71 months (M = 60.58, SD = 4.96). BIOS-Home data were collected by trained bilingual research assistants and SLPs who interviewed caregivers on their children's language input and output hour by hour. Principal components analysis (PCA) was conducted using caregiver-reported BIOS-Home data from both data sets to determine the smallest number of time chunks that could be used to measure language exposure. To explore the validity of the shortened BIOS-Home, bivariate correlation analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between children's semantics and morphosyntax scores and the original and shortened versions of the BIOS-Home. PCAs using the two data sets identified three time periods (morning, afternoon, and late afternoon/evening) for weekday receptive language and three time periods (morning, afternoon, and evening) for weekend receptive language. Language test score correlations comparing the hour-by-hour and the shortened approaches are highly similar, supporting the validity of the shortened approach. Consolidating the BIOS-Home questionnaire is a viable approach that can save time and elicit valid information about children's bilingual input and output.

The motor optimality of infants who have had Meningitis in the first months of life: A retrospective study.

This study aims to assess speech development, including receptive and expressive language, as well as articulation, in South Korean preschoolers with unilateral congenital aural atresia (CAA) compared with their peers with normal hearing. A retrospective review of medical records was conducted for preschoolers diagnosed with unilateral CAA at a single tertiary institution between January 2020 and December 2022. Excluding 12 children without speech evaluation and 4 with bilateral hearing loss, 67 subjects were enrolled. Raw scores from the Urimal-Test of Articulation and Phonology (U-TAP), assessing articulation abilities, were converted to z-scores against the normal standard. Similarly, raw scores from the Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary Test (REVT) and the Sequenced Language Scale for Infants (SELSI), evaluating vocabulary abilities, were transformed into z-scores for comparison with U-TAP. Receptive and expressive language abilities were compared using the percentile parameter. The average age at the time of the visit was 40.32±19.89 months, with 40 males (59.7%) and 27 females (40.3%), indicating male predominance. Affected ears were more prevalent on the right side (47 patients, 70.1%) than the left side (20 patients, 29.9%). U-TAP z-scores for the majority of 67 subjects were below 0, averaging -2.23±2.37. Spearman correlation analysis revealed a nonlinear relationship between age (in months) and U-TAP z-scores (correlation coefficient: 0.089, P-value: 0.432), suggesting no significant correlation between age and articulation. A pairwise comparison of REVT/SELSI and U-TAP z-scores showed higher receptive language scores than articulation abilities (P-value <0.0001). The average REVT/SELSI z-score was -0.09±1.70, indicating that vocabulary scores were largely within the normal range. In addition, the average percentile of expressive language (40.14±37.44) was significantly lower than that of receptive language (56.25±33.40) (P-value <0.005). When comparing speech parameters in patients with unilateral CAA, it was observed that receptive language abilities were mostly within the normal range. In addition, expressive language abilities were lower than receptive language abilities. The articulation abilities of preschoolers with unilateral CAA enrolled in this study were significantly inferior to those of their normally developing age-matched peers. Hence, preschoolers with unilateral CAA require careful monitoring of language development and appropriate intervention, including bone conduction hearing aids and articulation therapy, when necessary.

Objective Serious games are designed for educational purposes. This study aimed to explore the potential effects of a serious game designed to enhance the auditory skills of children with cochlear implants on their auditory perception and language skills. Design The control group continued with traditional auditory training, whereas the experimental group received an additional 12 sessions of a serious mobile game called The World of Sounds. Before and after the 12 sessions, the auditory perception skills of both groups were assessed using the Auditory Perception Test for Children, while language development was evaluated using the Turkish Early Language Development Test. Study Sample Twenty-four bilateral cochlear implant recipients, aged 30–60 months, were randomly assigned to either the control group or the experimental group. Results Significant time x group interactions were found across all subtests of the Auditory Perception Test for Children and Turkish Early Language Development Test batteries (p < 0.05). The experimental group demonstrated significantly greater improvements in auditory perception subtests and receptive language (p < 0.05). Conclusions Serious games may provide a supportive adjunct to conventional aural rehabilitation in children with cochlear implants.

The study aimed to validate a grammatical comprehension test for Italian-speaking children (TCGB-2; Test di Comprensione Grammaticale per Bambini - seconda versione) and examine the influence of individual and familial factors on grammatical comprehension in Italian-speaking children. A relevant feature of the TCGB-2 is its inclusion of specific grammatical structures scores, which enhances its clinical relevance. A multicentre observational study on 452 Italian-speaking children aged 3;6-8;11 (years; months) was conducted. Psychometric evaluations included item analysis, internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity, encompassing Confirmatory Factor Analysis, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. Differences based on age, gender, parental socioeconomic status (SES), area of residence, and language exposure were also examined, alongside non-verbal reasoning and phonological memory. The TCGB-2 demonstrated strong psychometric properties, including acceptable reliability, validity, and factorial structure. Statistically significant differences in comprehension scores were observed based on age, gender, and SES, with higher scores for older children, females, and children whose parents have higher educational and professional backgrounds. Non-verbal reasoning and phonological memory showed weak correlations with grammatical comprehension. The inclusion of varied grammatical structures provided a detailed profile of the developmental learning trajectory for each grammatical type. The TCGB-2 is a valid and reliable tool for assessing grammatical comprehension in Italian children, with its different grammatical structures offering added clinical insight. Findings underscore that age, gender, and SES contribute to language comprehension. These factors should be considered in clinical practice to better support children with language comprehension needs.

Contemporary “all-English” instructional models often marginalize learners’ mother tongues, impeding both comprehension and participation in English-medium classrooms. This paper introduces an end-to-end computer-assisted multimodal framework for the automatic analysis and assessment of translanguaging practices—instances where learners dynamically interweave native-language elements into English discourse. Our system integrates (1) multimodal teaching materials (video, audio, text) designed via expert-driven instructional design; (2) a speech-to-text pipeline for capturing student utterances; (3) NLP preprocessing modules for tokenization, part-of-speech tagging and interlingual code-switch detection; and (4) a fine-tuned BERT-based semantic analyzer that quantitatively scores fluency and naturalness in cross-language segments. We evaluated the platform with a controlled study involving 120 secondary-level learners: the experimental group (multimodal–deep-learning support) outperformed controls by an average of 3.61 % (86 vs. 83 points) across fluency, lexical sophistication and pragmatic appropriateness metrics. These results demonstrate that coupling multimodal interfaces with deep NLP models yields measurable gains in both receptive and productive language skills. Our contributions span cognitive linguistics (quantitative modeling of translanguaging), educational informatics (design of adaptive multimodal content), and applied machine learning (novel BERT-based cross-language evaluator), forging a replicable path for data-driven language teaching and assessment.

Despite early intervention with cochlear implants, children with hearing impairment often show poorer language performance than their hearing peers. Previous research has focussed primarily on language outcomes, while data on the relationship between language and cognitive function is limited. The aim of this study was to investigate and compare receptive language skills and the components of verbal working memory (storage and processing of information) in children with cochlear implants and their hearing peers, as well as to investigate the relationships between these skills within and between groups. The study involved 35 children with cochlear implants and 23 hearing children, aged 6 to 15 years, who were matched for gender and chronological age. They were assessed using the Croatian versions of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVTIII-HR) and the Test for Reception of Grammar (TROG-2:HR), while verbal working memory was assessed using the Digit-Span task. The results showed that children with cochlear implants had significantly lower scores in vocabulary and grammar comprehension, as well as lower verbal working memory capacity. Stronger correlations between language and cognitive variables were observed in the group of children with cochlear implants than in the hearing group. These results emphasise the importance of integrated assessment and intervention targeting both language and cognitive skills.

ABSTRACTBackgroundAdolescents with developmental language disorder (DLD) are known to be at increased risk for socio‐emotional difficulties. Yet, there remains considerable uncertainty about how problems in language abilities, executive functioning (EF), and theory of mind (ToM) contribute to the socio‐emotional difficulties observed in this group. In addition, only a limited number of studies have compared adolescents with and without DLD on these underlying cognitive and linguistic domains.AimsThis study examined (1) differences between adolescents with and without DLD in language, EF, ToM, and socio‐emotional functioning, (2) associations among these domains, and (3) the unique contributions of language, EF, and ToM to socio‐emotional functioning.Methods and ProceduresForty adolescents with developmental language disorder (DLD) and 36 typically developing (TD) peers, matched for age and education level, completed measures of receptive vocabulary, visuospatial working memory (Corsi Block‐Tapping Task), cognitive flexibility (Berg Card‐Sorting Test), cognitive ToM (ToMotion task), and affective ToM (Emotion Recognition Task). Parents completed the IKAN questionnaire, which served as the measure of socio‐emotional functioning. Group differences were assessed using independent‐samples t‐tests and Mann–Whitney U tests. Associations were examined using Spearman correlations. Multiple regression analyses were conducted with the IKAN total score as the outcome variable.Outcomes and ResultsAdolescents with DLD scored significantly lower than their TD peers on receptive language, cognitive ToM, and socio‐emotional functioning as measured by the IKAN. They showed significantly reduced scores on seven of the eight socio‐emotional subscales. No significant group differences were found for visuospatial working memory, cognitive flexibility, or affective ToM. Receptive vocabulary correlated positively with cognitive flexibility, both ToM measures, and several IKAN subscales. Cognitive ToM showed consistent moderate associations with overall socio‐emotional functioning. In the regression model, cognitive ToM was the only significant unique predictor of socio‐emotional functioning (R2 = 0.23).Conclusions and ImplicationsThis study demonstrates that adolescents with DLD experience more difficulties in receptive language, cognitive ToM, and socio‐emotional functioning compared to their TD peers. Moreover, cognitive ToM appears to be a key predictor of socio‐emotional functioning across adolescents with and without DLD. Clinical and educational services should therefore extend support beyond language remediation and consider targeted interventions that strengthen cognitive ToM to improve socio‐emotional adjustment.WHAT THIS PAPER ADDSWhat is already known on this subjectAdolescents with developmental language disorders (DLDs) experience significant socio‐emotional difficulties, including higher levels of anxiety, depression, and peer victimization. Research highlights the role of cognitive factors, such as Theory of Mind (ToM) and executive functioning (EF), in socio‐emotional development, but studies specifically focusing on these constructs in DLD are limited. Language difficulties alone do not fully explain the socio‐emotional challenges, indicating that underlying cognitive deficits might play a key role.What this study adds to the existing knowledgeThis study examines the relationship between language abilities, ToM, EF, and socio‐emotional functioning in adolescents with DLD. It explores how these cognitive factors uniquely contribute to socio‐emotional problems, providing a deeper understanding of the mechanisms at play in this population.What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work?This study highlights the need for individualized interventions for adolescents with DLD, given the significant variability in cognitive profiles and socio‐emotional functioning within this group. The findings suggest that cognitive factors, particularly ToM, may play a crucial role in predicting socio‐emotional difficulties, emphasizing the importance of targeting these areas in therapeutic interventions. Additionally, the lack of significant correlations between receptive language and socio‐emotional functioning suggests that both receptive and expressive language should be assessed to develop more comprehensive interventions aimed at improving social skills and emotional regulation.

Developmental language disorder (DLD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder that affects receptive and expressive language skills. In contrast to the wealth of evidence on acquired language disorders, we understand relatively little about the neural underpinnings of DLD. A recent meta-analysis across different types of structural brain analyses in DLD highlighted consistent anatomical differences in the anterior striatum, with other subcortical structures relatively spared. These findings are consistent with predictions from the procedural circuit deficit hypothesis (PCDH), namely that the anterior neostriatum differs in structure and function in DLD, whereas medial temporal lobe structures are unaffected and may act in a compensatory manner. Here, in a case–control study with a larger sample size than previous studies, we evaluated volume and microstructure of subcortical grey matter structures using T1-weighted images and diffusion imaging. Our predictions were partly in accord with those of the PCDH and the findings of the meta-analysis. Neuroimaging and behavioural measures were acquired in 156 children and adolescents (54 DLD; 74 typically developing (TD); 28 with a history of language difficulties) aged 10:0–15:11 years. As predicted by the PCDH, there were significant differences in the DLD group in volume and microstructure of the neostriatum (caudate nucleus, putamen). However, in contrast to our prediction, there were also significantly smaller structures in the DLD group across other subcortical structures evaluated: globus pallidus, thalamus and hippocampus. The hippocampal difference is of particular interest as it is hypothesized in the PCDH to be spared in DLD. Microstructural measures (diffusion tensor imaging and neurite orientation dispersion and density imaging) revealed differences in the caudate nucleus, thalamus and hippocampus. Multivariate machine learning analyses highlighted the relationship between the hippocampus and language skills but only in the TD cohort. We conclude that the subcortical correlates of DLD are in fact not limited to the neostriatum and represent important areas of further inquiry.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Down syndrome (DS) are among the most common types of neurodevelopmental conditions that have co-occurring language impairments. Usually, non-verbal IQ has been reported as one of the main predictors of language functioning in children with these conditions. Although language abilities of children with ASD and DS have been described in the previous studies, there is still a lack of direct comparisons of language profiles in the non-verbal IQ-matched groups of children with these disorders, and, therefore, it is largely unexplored whether language difficulties in these populations are of similar or different origins. The study provided a direct comparison of language profiles in non-verbal IQ-matched children with ASD and DS at different linguistic levels (phonology, vocabulary and morphosyntax) in both production and comprehension and explored the influence of different psycholinguistic variables on accuracy. Also, the study assessed whether non-language factors (non-verbal IQ and age) influence language skills in both groups of children. In total, 60 children participated in the study: 20 children with ASD, 20 children with DS and 20 typically developing controls (7-11 years old; all groups were age-matched). The language testing included seven tests from the Russian Child Language Assessment Battery, assessing expressive and receptive language skills at phonological, lexical and morphosyntactic levels. Overall, we revealed both similarities and differences in language profiles between children with ASD and DS. At the group performance level, children with ASD and DS were comparable in vocabulary and syntax but differed in phonological processing, on which children with ASD had higher accuracy. Some psycholinguistic variables that influenced accuracy in language test performance were present uniquely in the ASD group: for example, autistic children struggled more with verbs than nouns in naming or comprehended sentences with canonical SVO word order more accurately than sentences with noncanonical OVS word order. In comparison to children with DS, in the ASD group, non-verbal IQ was related to language skills in three out of seven tests, with evidence of a positive association between them. This study provided new insights on the differences in language profiles of non-verbal IQ-matched children with ASD and DS and identified specific impairments related to linguistic levels and structural language characteristics in each group. These findings contributed to speech and language therapy strategies, as they highlighted specific 'linguistic deficits' that should be targeted during intervention and therapy. What is already known on this subject Language profiles of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Down syndrome (DS) have been described in previous studies on different languages. Usually, non-verbal IQ has been reported as one of the main predictors of language functioning in these groups of individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders. However, there is a lack of direct comparisons of language profiles at different linguistic levels in these groups, matched by non-verbal IQ and using standardized language assessment tools to understand whether the nature of language impairments is common or different in ASD and DS regardless of non-verbal cognition. What this study adds to the existing knowledge This study provided a direct comparison of language profiles at different linguistic levels in children with ASD and DS matched by non-verbal IQ. This identified similarities and differences in language functioning at different linguistic levels in children with ASD and DS as well as revealed non-language factors that were associated with language abilities. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? The study showed the differences in language profiles of children with ASD and DS regardless of non-verbal IQ and identified specific impairments related to linguistic levels and structural language characteristics. This knowledge contributes to speech and language therapy strategies, as it elucidates specific 'linguistic deficits' that should be targeted during intervention and therapy.

The topic of children's sleep health and the consequences that arise from its disorders is becoming an increasingly relevant and discussed topic. The interdisciplinary team is united around the idea that the manifestation of symptoms of obstructive sleep apnea is also associated with manifestations of orthodontic deformities, as well as communication disorders. The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between obstructive sleep apnea, speech disorders, and orthodontic deformities. Methodology: For this study, nine children were examined, their histories were taken, and diagnoses were provided by an ENT specialist, an orthodontist, and a speech-language therapist. Each parent completed the sleep questionnaire after an otorhinolaryngological examination. For the study of language and speech, the "Methodology for assessing the educational needs of children and students" was applied, as well as the Diagnosis and prevention of language 3–4. Orthodontic diagnostics was performed through a primary examination by an orthodontist. The patients were given a photo protocol with extra- and intraoral photographs; digital impressions were taken; X-ray examinations were prescribed (orthopantomography and teleradiography); and they underwent a detailed orthodontic analysis. Results: The PSQ results divided the children into a clinical group (five) and a borderline group (four). The ENT diagnosed adenoid vegetation in all children, grades III-IV, and four with hearing loss after audiometry and tympanometry. In three children from the clinical sample, disorders of receptive language were observed, and in one, an expressive language disorder was also present. Among the children with a borderline value according to the PSQ, one child with an expressive form of language disorder stood out. All children were diagnosed with an articulation disorder of the polymorphic type. The orthodontic examination in the clinical group identified two children with an Angle Class II occlusion, accompanied by a deep bite and cross-bite in the posterior segment, due to compression of the upper jaw, a direct consequence of mouth breathing. In the borderline group, two children are with Angel class II sagittal occlusion, with an open bite in the frontal segment and cross bite in the posterior segment. One of the children has an Angel class I and an open bite in the frontal segment. Conclusion: The study's data reveal connections between obstructive sleep apnea symptoms, speech and language disorders, and orthodontic changes. As a consequence of prolonged sleep disturbance caused by adenoid vegetation, which led to irregular breathing and tongue position at rest, occlusal irregularities in the three planes—sagittal, vertical, and transverse —and, last but not least, speech and language disorders.

This study aims to examines the implementation of Outdoor Learning (ODL) as a strategy to enhance early childhood language development at KB Aisyiyah Cakru, Jember. Grounded in the view that early language abilities are fundamental to cognitive, social, and academic growth, ODL was introduced through contextual activities such as visiting a traditional market and exploring a local herbal garden. Using a qualitative descriptive approach, data were collected through observations, semi-structured interviews with teachers and parents, and documentation of children’s learning activities. The findings show that ODL provides authentic, meaningful, and multisensory learning experiences that significantly improve children’s receptive and expressive language skills, including vocabulary acquisition, sentence formation, confidence in communication, and spontaneous verbal interaction. These results align with Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development and the principles of Contextual Teaching and Learning, demonstrating that real-world engagement strengthens language use through social interaction and experiential stimuli. The study concludes that ODL is an effective and relevant pedagogical approach for supporting early language development, particularly in rural PAUD settings rich in local environmental resources.

Secondary-school Arabic teachers frequently report low student involvement, limited vocabulary growth, and weak listening comprehension when instruction relies mainly on lectures. To address these issues, the present study tested whether instructional games created with the Construct 2 engine could improve vocabulary and listening skills among junior-high learners. Adopting a quasi-experimental, non-equivalent control-group pretest-posttest design, the research arranged participants into three sections: an experimental group taught with Construct 2 games, a positive control group receiving enriched traditional lessons, and a negative control group exposed solely to lecture delivery. ANCOVA analysis uncovered a statistically significant group effect, F(2, 26) = 65.14, p = .021, accompanied by a large η² = 0.95. Follow-up post hoc comparisons showed that the experimental group (M = 75.6) outpaced both control sections (M = 68.9 and M = 67.2, p &lt; .001). Overall, results indicate that game-based learning can reliably enhance receptive language abilities and warrants further adoption in Arabic classrooms. These findings speak directly to how teachers and administrators might structure courses and introduce new techniques, especially where money and materials are scarce.

Autism and fragile X syndrome (FXS) are both associated with pragmatic communication difficulties, but the pattern of strengths and weaknesses varies. Early pragmatic communication skills include using communication for different functions, such as behavior regulation or establishing/maintaining joint attention. This study examines naturalistic samples of communication to assess pragmatic function variables in very young children with autism, FXS, and typical development (TD). Using the Communication Complexity Scale, standardized communication samples were collected from children with autism (n = 10), FXS (n = 10), and TD (n = 10), matched on spoken word count. Patterns of overall communication and pragmatic functions are provided. The relationships between pragmatic communication and cognition, receptive language, expressive language, and autistic symptomatology were assessed. Group differences in the amount and complexity of the pragmatic functions of behavior regulation and joint attention were analyzed. Descriptively different patterns of overall communication and pragmatic functions emerged between groups, with lower amounts of joint attention in the group with autism. Trends toward significant correlations between expressive language and both pragmatic functions in FXS as well as behavior regulation and cognition in the FXS and TD groups emerged. There were no significant group differences. Findings highlight possible early differences in pragmatic communication between autism and FXS. Clinicians need to consider nuanced differences between groups.

This study critically evaluates two Grade 12 English textbook Life Today used in Indonesia’s Kurikulum Merdeka to determine the extent to which the textbook aligns with curricular expectations for developing senior high school students’ receptive (reading, listening) and productive (speaking, writing) language skills. Anchored in the principles of textbook evaluation within English Language Teaching (ELT), the study examines how far the textbook operationalizes curriculum-mandated competencies and communicative goals. Using Williams’ (1983) ELT Textbook Evaluation Checklist and qualitative document analysis, the study examines the textbook’s linguistic content, instructional design, and methodological alignment. Findings show that the textbook strongly promotes receptive skills through contextualized reading passages, Genre-Based Approach (GBA) scaffolding, and communicative learning strategies. However, weaknesses are evident in productive skill development, including limited controlled grammar practice, insufficient distinction between receptive and productive vocabulary, and minimal guidance on pronunciation and L1–L2 contrasts. These gaps risk contributing to the receptive–productive imbalance commonly observed among Indonesian EFL learners. The study concludes that while the textbook offers rich input comprehension support, additional pedagogical intervention is required to strengthen learners’ speaking and writing proficiency.

Objectives Individuals with an intellectual disability (ID) who use alternative and augmentative communication (AAC) systems form a highly heterogeneous group, including in terms of their oral and written communication skills. In typical development, these skills are strongly interrelated, yet can develop to some extent independently. This study aimed to identify the subgroups that emerge among students with ID who use AAC, which is important for determining targeted educational priorities. Methods A cluster analysis was conducted based on communication, receptive vocabulary, sentence comprehension, print knowledge, phonological awareness, letter-sound knowledge, reading and spelling, as measured among 35 children with ID who use AAC aged 6 to 12. Results Four clusters emerged: (1) children with very low receptive oral and written language skills (N = 23; 65,7%), (2) children with low written language skills and higher receptive oral language skills (N = 7; 20%); (3) beginning readers with good receptive oral language skills (N = 3; 8,6%); and (4) beginning readers with average receptive oral language skills (N = 2; 5,7%). Conclusions These profiles are discussed in terms of the pedagogical priorities that could be set for each of them, such as developing receptive vocabulary and listening comprehension for children in the first cluster, and providing explicit decoding instruction for children in the second cluster.