Real Unity Research Articles

Eigenanalysis and continuum modelling of pre-twisted repetitive beam-like structures

A repetitive pin-jointed, pre-twisted structure is analysed using a state variable transfer matrix technique. Within a global coordinate system the transfer matrix is periodic, but introduction of a local coordinate system rotating with nodal cross-sections results in an autonomous transfer matrix for this Floquet system. Eigenanalysis reveals four real unity eigenvalues, indicating tension–torsion coupling, and equivalent continuum properties such as Poisson’s ratio, cross-sectional area, torsion constant and the tension–torsion coupling coefficient are determined. A variety of real and complex near diagonal Jordan decompositions are possible for the multiple (eight) complex unity eigenvalues and these are discussed in some detail. Analysis of the associated principal vectors shows that a bending moment produces curvature in the plane of the moment, together with shear deformation in the perpendicular plane, but no bending–bending coupling; the choice of a structure having an equilateral triangular cross-section is thought responsible for this unexpected behaviour, as the equivalent continuum second moments of area are equal about all cross-sectional axes. In addition, an asymmetric stiffness matrix is obtained for bending moment and shearing force coupling, and possible causes are discussed.

The cognitive and behavioral sciences: Real patterns, real unity, real causes, but no supervenience

Our response amplifies our case for scientific realism and the unity of science and clarifies our commitments to scientific unity, nonreductionism, behaviorism, and our rejection of talk of “emergence.” We acknowledge support from commentators for our view of physics and, responding to pressure and suggestions from commentators, deny the generality supervenience and explain what this involves. We close by reflecting on the relationship between philosophy and science.

What, when, how and why? Theory and foreign language teaching

ABSTRACT Recent academic writing on foreign languages (FL) teaching, specifically at the initial training stage, has revived the question of the need for theory. However, the understanding of ‘theory’ in this writing can be seen to draw, consciously or otherwise, on functionalist, postmodern and broadly relativistic perspectives. In particular it is relativism that affects the applied theory of language teaching. In order to understand FL subject theory an elementary understanding of the philosophy of education and other forms of educational knowledge may be useful. The revival of theory is made even more problematic by the new orthodoxy of ‘reflective practice’. The notion of ‘reflective practice’ has made possible a sleight of hand where ‘practice’ invisibly becomes redefined or labelled as ‘theory.’ ‘Theory’ now often means nothing more than ‘talking about practice’. To re-establish the real unity of theory and practice, it is argued here, it is necessary to reverse contemporary fashion and emphasise theory over practice. Educational theory must be central from the beginning of initial training if it is to be of value to teachers in their future careers. To ask ‘Why theory?’ is a theoretical and not a practical question.

The Man of Many Devices, Who Wandered Full Many Ways.... Festschrift in Honor of János M. Bak by Balázs s> Nagy Marcell Sebők (review)

344 SEER, 79, 2, 200 I National Chronicle', 'Dlugosz and the Buda Chronicle' (in French) and the 'FirstHungarian Historians'. He took a freshlook at the narrativetexts, re-examining their composition and sourcesin a detail that nobody else has, before or since. Veryprobablyhe was provokedby the older conservativephilology in Hungary, and indeed his excellent criticalabilityensured him a much better graspof textual problems than many of his Hungarian counterparts.Today, it is a communis opinio that it was a mistake to attribute the differentchronicle continuations 'to a single brain','alost gestatheory',as suggestedby ProfessorBalintH6man. In search of these alternative national traditionsMacartney analysed all the chronicle variants (Chronicon Budense, Posoniense, Zagrabiense, Varadiense, and so on) and the most influentiallegends (St Stephen, St Gerard).He purposefully concentratedhis researcheson the Hunnish-Hungariantradition,formulated by Simon of Keza in the second half of the thirteenthcentury. This is a story almost totally bound up in the western literary tradition (Nibelungenlied, Attila saga, and so on) and historicalsources (Jordanes, Martin of Troppau, and so on). Macartney's unmatched literary knowledge gave him a sound basisfor criticizingearlierHungarian research,but he was certainlytoo strict with two outstanding researchers,SAndorDomanovszky and Sandor Eckhardt , and he undoubtedly over-complicatedthe derivationof texts from each other. But Macartney's work is still the most complete compilation of a definitiveline of Central-Europeanhistoriography,and no Hungarianhasyet attempted to produce anythingsimilar.The book startsoffwith two excellent biographicaland life'sworkessays,writtenby the editors,Czigany and Peter, and by G. H. N. Seton-Watson (pp. ix-xxxv), followed by a selected bibliographyof Macartney'sworks(pp. xxxvii-xliii). However, readingof the book is hampered by the lack of the source texts, a list of abbreviationsof the quoted source texts, and a brief summaryof the main historiographicalwork since Macartney. The book will certainly cause many surprisesfor historians of medieval Central Europe. Since its component essayswere designed to form a bridge between the literature of small nations and history as written in world languages,thisbook now fulfilsMacartney'swishes:understandingtheMiddle Ages is the route to the understandingand acceptance of the roots of today's multiculturalrealityin CentralEurope. Department ofMedieval Studies L. M. VESZPREMY Central European University, Budapest Nagy, Balazs and Seb8k, Marcell (eds). ... TheMan of ManyDevices,WAho Wandered FullManyWays. . .. Festschrift inHonorofJdnos M.Bak.Central EuropeanUniversityPress,Budapest, I999. xvii + 708 pp. Notes. Tables. Figures.Illustrations.Bibliography.?44-95 SOMEFestschriftsare organized around a central theme, while the other, and more common type simplyconsistsof a varietyof articlesto honour a scholar, without trying to achieve any real unity. This book falls into the second category;althoughthe contributionsaredividedinto nine sections(Personalia, REVIEWS 345 Artes, Rebelliones, Majestas, Hagiographica, Quotidiana, VariaMedievalia, Hungarica, Historiographica), there is no attempt at either thematic or chronological unity in the volume as a whole. Indeed, as both the title, a quotation from Homer's Odyssey, and the section headings indicate, diversity was one of the aims of the editors.Through thisvariety,they emphasizeJanos Bak's own experiences (he has lived and worked in several countries), and reflecthis own interests. The book consists of sixty-six articles (all written in English, German, or French)on Western-and East-CentralEuropeantopics fromlate Antiquityto the twentieth century. It also contains the full bibliography of Bak's own works.The articlesin any one section are only very loosely connected to each other through a broadly defined main theme. For example, the section 'Rebelliones' includes a piece by John C. Parsonson the real and perceived power of twelfth-centuryFrenchqueens to endanger the social orderthrough revealing their body; a second by Piotr G6recki on social violence and its remedies (punishment rather than arbitration)in lower Silesia; a third by Hanna Zaremska on cases of litigation by fifteenth-centuryJews before the Christian authorities in Krak6w; a fourth by Gabor Klaniczay on the characterizationsof rebelliouspeasantsinlatemedievalHungary,highlighting the birth of various stereotypes; and a fifth on Central European ideas linkingsocial criticism,Utopian social models and Reformationby Ferdinand Seibt. Most of the articlesin the volume are specificcase studies.As the following examples show, they will be of interest to specialists. Maria Dobozy demonstrates that Gottfried von Strassburg'sidea of rulershipin Tristan did not focus on the individual's virtues and vices, but instead on the social dynamics of the court. Andras Kubinyi examines the political role...

The Aesthetics of Duke Ellington's Suites: The Case of "Togo Brava"

One of the most controversial aspects of all the critiques of Ellington concerns the aesthetic value of his great works; from Creole Rhapsody onward, his suites have been the subject of a lively debate that ultimately addresses the very definition and nature of jazz. Seldom have Ellington's suites met with the approval of the critics, who have raised two mutually interdependent objection to them: 1. they betray the most authentic, profound nature of jazz; 2. they have no structural unity, no coherence of motive, and are weakened by the composer's inability to control large forms. The first of these objections dates back to the early thirties, to the publication of Reminiscing in Tempo, which unleashed a violent debate (see Hammond 1935; Archetti 1936). To modern ears, that diatribe sounds outdated. We have since understood that the idea of jazz is subject to mutation, to continuous redefinition; it evolves with the transformations in the relationship that the musicians, the public, and the critics have always had with jazz music (DeVeaux 1991). Unlike the first, however, the second objection--the one about structural unity--is still very widespread and is propounded by some very authoritative critics and scholars (a good example is the position adopted by Max Harrison [1964]). This objection is voiced against practically all of Ellington's suites (with the typical exception of Reminiscing in Tempo), essentially accusing the composer of being incapable of giving his longer works a real unity of theme, of not knowing how to manage the development of a motive, and of having composed--especially after the Second World War--suites that are no more than strings of separate pieces. These separate pieces, the argument continues, are held together not by any profound relationship between the pieces themselves but by criteria outside the music, at times explicitly descriptive, at other times abstract (such as literary dedications or dedications to a given country, continent, city, etc.). Ultimately, Ellington is accused of being unable to master the techniques of composing for large forms, a weakness that only underscores the fact that he was not familiar with such composers as Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, or Schumann. However, it is a mistake to base an understanding and appreciation of Ellington's suites on the aesthetic criteria used to judge European classical music, especially European music of the classical-romantic period. The question of the success or failure of Ellington's larger compositions needs to be addressed from a completely different viewpoint. Writing about vernacular music, Thomas Brothers (1997, 170) succinctly defined the role played by aural transmission and transcription: Vernacular music may be written down at any time, for one purpose or another, and one genre or another may even give rise to tradition that is conceived and disseminated in writing. But, substantially, vernacular music evolves independently of notation. This is exactly how jazz has developed. It is music based on an aural tradition, it has evolved against an urban industrial background, and it has spread in no small part by means of secondary aurality (Ong 1982) such as the radio, the record, and the video. Aural traditions have their own unique ways of transmitting knowledge, both on the level of how they work on their phrases and on formulas and the level of the overall form. (1) Because sound is not permanent, but fleeting and volatile, and writing is not the most important way in which it is transmitted, music and poetry based on aural tradition rely on our memory for their survival. In terms of content, the most effective way of fixing the information for posterity is by repetition, which leads to elaborations on the formula of the material. Because it is notoriously difficult to manage large forms in terms of memory alone, aural cultures are incapable of organizing forms constructed of organic relationships: forms that make use of developments and elaborate cross-references with internal transformations that refer both forward and backward within the composition. …

Disaster Preparedness In The Caribbean: A Trinidad Experience

Aim: To assess the strengths and weaknesses of managing a disaster by analysis of the events of Machel Montano show tragedy of November 2000. Method: Data was collected immediately on all patients attending the Accident and Emergency department as a result of the collapsed stand at the Machel Montano Real Unity Concert. The communication, administration, staff and patient response were assessed to document details of the disaster. Results: Over a 90-minute period 133 patients arrived at the Accident and Emergency department. Doctors at the concert assisted in triage and the Emergency Health Service ambulances (EHS) were well equipped and with trained staff and provided efficient transport for all of the severely injured. Medical, nursing, radiology and laboratory staff response was excellent. Patient co-operation was very good and this assisted efficient management of the tragedy. All areas were satisfactory with the exception of the limited number of ICU beds (4) and operating theartres (2) available. Conclusion: All our islands should have a relevant, practical disaster plan. Operating theatres and Intensive care units are potentially weak areas. Good radiology services are extremely important.

Fascism and Theatre: Comparative Studies on the Aesthetics and Politics of Performance in Europe, 1925-1945 (review)

Book Reviews 129 time involved in translating an entire book, usually only sections-typically the table ofcontents and the necrology-are translated first (additional sections are translated later as tiine and money permit), and these are put on the web site of JewishGen, Inc., a group which focuses on genealogical research on the Internet and hosts a Yizkor Book Translation Project. Much ofthis current recognition ofthe value ofyizkorbooks and the interest in having the books translated and made accessible to all researchers can be attributed to the efforts of Kugelmass and Boyarin in From a Ruined Garden to point people to the function of memorial books in revealing Jewish experience in history. In writing the [yizkor] book the town's survivors gave it back its Jewish and human name along with the most fitting burial they could think of for an annihilated community. They erected a stone, and on it they wrote all they could remember about a time and place that now exist only in memory. In so doing, they and others fulfilled a solemn obligation.... 'In a yizker-bukh, a memorial volume! Today we have set up a tombstone in memory ofyou!' (p.243) Joyce Field Translations Manager JewishGen, Inc. Yizkor Book Project Fascism and Theatre: Comparative Studies on the Aesthetics and Politics of Performance in Europe, 1925-1945, edited and with an introduction by GUnter Berghaus. Providence and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 1996. 315 pp. $24.50. Much important academic research appears not in the form ofjournal articles but as "chapters" in loosely organized collective volumes that are often preceded by conferences or colloquia. The great advantage to such publication is its wider availability and thus accessibility; the great disadvantage is that these "books" often contain a somewhat mismatched assortment of short essays. For the most part, readers must peruse such tomes knowing that the contents will probably prove uneven. Fascism and Theatre: Comparative Studies on the Aesthetics and Politics of Performance in Europe, 1925-1945follows an earlierbook edited by GUnter Berghaus; like that earlier volume, Theatre and Film in Exile: German Artists in Exile in Great Britain, 1933-45, it evolved from a conference sponsored by the Universities ofBristol, Granada, and Berlin. Yet in spite ofthe careful planning that went into the symposium and its subsequent publication, this collection ofessays seems at times to lack real unity; rather than offering what Berghaus calls "a wide ranging analysis of the roles and functions played by theatre and other performative means of expression in fascist States," Fascism and Theatre presents an interesting and odd assortment of glimpses 130 SHOFAR Winter 2000 Vol. 18, NO.2 into the theatrical culture ofHitler's Germany and Mussolini's Italy, with side trips into Franco's Spain and Petain's France. At its best, many of the book's essays respond in some way to each other. For example, Roger Griffen's opening piece, on the politics and aesthetics of fascist performance, lays a strong foundation for much of what follows, and as a few of the succeeding writers take up their subjects, they do so by referring back to Griffen's definitions and explanations. Such acknowledgment gives some unity to parts of the larger collection. Yet there are many more instances in which individual contributors seem to be writing without any genuine knowledge ofwhat others in the project have done. Erik Levi's closing essay, on opera in Nazi Germany (with a briefsummation of opera in fascist Italy), would clearly have benefited from some connection with Barbara Panse's survey ofcensorship ofdrama within the Reich, and at least two ofthe pieces on Italian theatre-Pietro Cavallo's and Mario Verdone's--even appear to contradict each other at times. And, perhaps more disconcertingly, Serge Added's chapter on Jacques Copeau's career under Vichy is admittedly lifted from his excellent book (yet to be translated into English), Le Theatre dans les annees Vichy, and makes little connection with the rest of the material. There is, in fact, some very fine work in the collection. Berghaus's own "The Ritual Core of Fascist Theatre," although it never sufficiently addresses the problems in reception which it raises, nonetheless provides an anthropological background to the...

Stability evolution of clayey slopes and measurement modelling of mobilizing shearing resistance

Materials in black clays weakly silty of the chaotic complex of “Argille Scagliose” and in blue clays with silt and weakly sandy of the basin of the Upper Pliocene, in the Bologna area (Italy) were examined.Samples with a different saturation degree for considering significant elastic modulus and permeability coefficients characteristic of homogeneous real unities of slope were tested. With these data it was possible to perform direct shearing resistance measurements with parameters expressed in effective and residual terms, to anlyse the stability of slopes formed with different materials and in evolutionary configuration of erosion.The permeability of these materials measured direct in the country, is about 10−4 cm.s−1 for blue clay and 10−5 cm.s−1 for black clay. In the laboratory in connection with homogeneous samples, permeability reaches values of 10−8 cm.s−1 for both materials.The subsequent tests of shear resistance carried out with the construction of a special speed reducer utilized three different speeds of preconstituted shear, i.e.: 10−3 cm.s−1, 10−5 cm. s−1, 10−7 cm.s−1. These tests have put in evidence higher values of shear resistance for blue clays with respect to black clays which reach lower values for the shear speed of 10−7 cm.s−1. This shear speed was chosen because it allows an almost complete dissipation of pore pressure. The axial compression tests with lateral deformation in free air revealed different elastic moduli for saturated and nonsaturated samples and for the two different materials tested. In particular: the elastic modulus for blue clays is smaller than that for black clays whereas saturated samples have an elastic modulus greater than that for non saturated samples. These data, introduced in a finite element model that utilises triangular mesh with at least six nodes, were analysed with the automatic system of calculation of plasticity with axis symmetric produced from “Plaxis”.With erosional data collected monthly and annually, projected to 100 and 300 years, a slope erosional model was constructed that made it possible to verify that black clays are unstable with Fs passing from 0.98 to 0.95 over 100 years. It is also possible to see that blue clays move towards stability with Fs passing from l.32 to l.34 over 100 years and to l.39 over 300 years.

Deification as a Motif in Luther's Dictata super psalterium

Recently a group of Finnish scholars led by Tuomo Mannermaa has argued that since justification, for Luther, proceeds by Christ and the Christian forming a real ontic unity in which the believer actually participates in God, deification is a central theme in the Reformer's theology. The most sustained and detailed of this exciting new scholarship is Sirno Peura's groundbreaking Mehr als ein Mensch?, a book that traces the deification theme in Luther between 1513 and 1519. After mentioning some of the significant Finnish research, this article focuses on Peura's attempt to find divinization in Luther's Dictata super Psalterium. While it agrees with Peura's contention that deification imagery occurs throughout the Dictata, it raises some critical methodological and ontological questions pertinent to the claim that, for Luther, believers really do acquire an ontic participation in God.

Methodology and communitarianism

Amitai Etzioni's newest reader provides a much-needed opportunity to evaluate communitarian thinking from the perspective of third sector research. Although the authors contributing to the volume take disparate stances on such issues as human nature, institutional requirements of democracy and citizenship, the book emphasises that communitarian thinking nowadays constitutes a robust theory in its own right. Although the political content of this theory as well as the methodological prescriptions on which it is based are highly relevant for all social science fields, they are of particular interest for third sector research as a newly emerging discipline. The political programme of communitarianism is based on a concern for human community. It constitutes a 'third way' between excessive liberalism (which sees in society no real unity) and state-run socialism (which distorts the concept of unity of society). However, as a 'third way', communitarianism could also be dismissed as, at best, little more than a corrective of individualism and, at worst, as a form of old-fashioned collectivism. The question whether or not communitarianism halfills the promise of a third way is dealt with by the other contributors to this common review. In this opening commentary, I would like to address some of the methodological issues raised by several of the contributors to Etzioni's volume.

The Wall after the Wall: On the Continuing Division of Germany and the Remaking of Political Culture

When the wall came down on November 9, 1989, Willy Brandt commented: Now grows together what belongs together. What followed in the eleven months after the fall of the wall was anything but a growing together. A breathtaking process of unification ended the separation of Germany almost exactly one year after the leadership of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) celebrated the fortieth anniversary of the East German state as a documentation of the irreversibility of the German division. With the completion of German unity on October 3, 1990, many Germans awoke to the fact that unification had undone the political structures of the GDR in a single strike but that the differences between East and West Germans were just coming into the open. For example, on the day of unification, Willy Brandt modified his earlier statement: Today I would say that what politically belongs together from this 3rd of October onward still has to grow together.' And one year later, even the nationalist Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung conceded that national unity had been achieved only in political ter.ms but that real unity was still way down the road.2

Transcendental being: Scotus and Scotists

Of singular importance to the medieval theory of transcendentals was the position of John Duns Scotus that there could be a concept of being univocally common, not only to substance and accidents, but even to God and creatures. Scotus's doctrine of univocal transcendental concepts violated the accepted view that, owing to its generality, no transcendental notion could be univocal. The major difficulty facing Scotus's doctrine of univocity was to explain how a real, as opposed to a purely logical, concept could be abstracted from what agreed in nothing real, in this case, God and creatures. The present article examines Scotus's solution to this difficulty and its interpretation in four of his noted fourteenth-century followers. It is shown that the balance Scotus's solution achieved between the competing demands of the real diversity between God and creatures, on the one side, and the conceptual unity of transcendental being, on the other, is taken in opposed directions by his interpreters. Either the real diversity of God and creatures is given priority, so that the concept of being becomes a purely logical notion, or the real unity of the concept of being is stressed, so that some sort of real community is posited between God and creatures.

An Introduction to Metaphysics of Knowledge by Yves R. Simon

154 BOOK REVIEWS Woznicki highlights his own interpretation of St. Thomas's view of being and order by comparing and contrasting it with the views of other thinkers, such as Duns Scotus and Ockham. Woznicki points out that Duns Scotus's insistance on the primacy of essence over exist· ence led to a metaphysics quite different from that of Saint Thomas, in which existence had priority over essence, Woznicki emphasizes that Ockham's denial of the validity of analogy has bequeathed to us an instrumentalistic understanding of being as being; the real unity of being is replaced by a unity that is the product of our minds. What actually happens in Ockham is that metaphysics is subordinated to the demands of logic. Ockham's metaphysics also resembles the Heraclitean philosophy of becoming, and Woznicki points to Nietzsche as evidence that such a philosophy of becoming necessarily leads to nihilism. In his criticism of Ockham as well as in his criticism of Descartes, Kant, and Whitehead, Woznicki not only makes Thomas seem more attrac· tive but also, at least implicitly, reveals the deleterious effect that influential false philosophies can have on the human adventure. Woznicki 's explanation of Thomas's doctrine of esse does involve abstract thinking, but the result, the rooting of order in esse, is anything but irrelevant. Metaphysics does bury its undertakers; bad metaphysics creates victims. Father Woznicki has produced a fine work as the author of this first volume in the series Catholic Thought from Lublin. I hope that in his role as editor he will be able to present in the near future other volumes as good as Being and Order. Saint John's University Jamaica, New York ROBERT E. LAUDER An Introduction to Metaphysics of Knowledge. By YVES R. SIMON. Translated by Vukan Kuic and Richard J. Thompson. New York: Fordham University Press, 1990. Pp. xii + 180. Almost sixty years have passed between the first appearance of Jn. troduction al'ontologie du connaitre and its English translation. But even though we have had to wait so long, we now have this treasure in hand. An Introduction to Metaphysics of Knowledge leaves no doubt that here is a thinker of the first water. Simon's writings never fail to exemplify the medieval fusion of the concepts " teacher " and " master " in the Latin " magister." As I observed when reviewing one of his posthumously published books, Work, Society, and Culture, BOOK REVIEWS 155 Simon had the knack for using concrete words and vivid imagery drawn from everyday life to carry the reader to the very heart of pro· found thoughts. That testifies to more than just a good prose style; the freedom from reliance on jargon and formalized academic language shows that Simon was neither a " scholastic" (in the pejorative sense of the word) nor a pedant or mere academician. His ready access to everyday language is simply one more indication that he was an independent philosophical thinker for whom reflective personal experience, not the text, was the ultimate court of appeal for arriving at the truth. A case in point is the book's structure. Flipping through its pages, one notices the frequent extended discussions in the footnotes and the abundant citation of classical texts, often leaving room for no more than three or four lines of Simon's own prose on a given page. This may well remind the reader of the musty pedantry of so many doctoral dissertations. But although Simon frequently cites the texts of Aristotle, St. Thomas, Cajetan, and John of St. Thomas, the arguments he advances clearly do not depend on any appeal to the authority of these authors. Although a Thomist, he assumes complete responsibility for his critique of knowledge; he is a thinker whose arguments stand on their own merit. All the references to the aforementioned authorities are truly footnotes; they are never an essential part of Simon's own text. (This bears mention for the benefit of the august members of "The Guardianship of the Undefiled Text of St. Thomas Aquinas," who can be counted upon to insist that commentators, such as John of St. Thomas, are unreliable interpreters of the master's texts.) The book sparkles as a...

Leibniz's "Analysis of Multitude and Phenomena into Unities and Reality"

Leibniz's "Analysis of Multitude and Phenomena into Unities and Reality" DONALD P. RUTHERFORD 1. INTRODUCTION A REFRAIN OFTEN HZARD in Leibniz's later writings is that bodies, by their very nature as "multitudes" or "aggregates" of material parts, presuppose the existence of monadic substances. In the New Essays, his book-length response to Locke, Leibniz writes: "It should be borne in mind that matter.., is nothing but an aggregate [areas] or the result of one; and that any real aggregate presupposes simple substances or real unities" (A 6, 6: 378/RB 378). Similarly, in the "Principles of Nature and of Grace," he states that "Compounds, or bodies, are multitudes, and simple substances--lives, souls, and spirits--are unities. There must of necessity be simple substances everywhere, for without simple substances there would be no compounds" (GP 6: 598/L 636 ). Again, in section 2 of the "Monadology," we read: "There must be simple substances, since there are compounds, for the compound is but a collection or an aggregate of simples" (GP 6: 6o7/L 643).' A list of abbreviations for the primary sources cited in this article is given at the end of the essay. Versions of this paper were read at Reed College, Purdue University, and Emory University, and to the Leibniz group of the 1988 NEH Institute in Early Modern Philosophy. In each case, I would like to thank my audiences for their helpful comments. Special thanks are owed to Janet Broughton, Daniel Garber, Benson Mates, Steven Nadler, and George MacDonald Ross,each of whom provided valuable suggestions for revisions of earlier drafts. Initial work on this paper was supported by a Doctoral Fellowship from the Social Sciencesand Humanities Research Council of Canada. ' In what follows, I assume that the expressions "multitude," "compound," "aggregate," and "collection" lamas,assemblage]are all roughly synonymousfor Leibniz. This maybe an oversimplification . Leibniz often uses the terms "aggregate" and "collection" to designate so-called "corporate entities" (e.g., armies and herds), whose unity and identity qua singular things are determined by the particular relations holding among their individual members. Since the term "multitude" may [525] 526 JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY 28:4 OCTOBER 199o The key to these notoriously cryptic passages, I believe, is to be found in Leibniz's simplest analysis of the concept of bodywwhat he describes in a letter to de Voider as his "analysis of multitude and phenomena into unities and reality" (GP 9: 27o). As this passage indicates, Leibniz's analysis of the concept of body is closely connected to considerations of the reality of body. In the "New System," he explicitly says that "a multitude can have its reality only from true unities" (GP 4:478/L 454). When taken in conjunction with the passages quoted above, this statement suggests that bodies are real precisely because the existence of any body, qua compound or multitude, presupposes the existence of monads, qua unities. In what follows, I shall contend that this is in fact Leibniz's position. If this is so, however, it remains unclear at the outset why the presupposition of monads by bodies should bear on the reality of bodies. How does just this fact support the proposition that bodies are, in some sense, "real beings," and not mere appearances? I shall argue that this connection holds because the presupposition relation between the existence of bodies and the existence of monads is predicated on a relation between the metaphysical essences of material things and monads. Insofar as any body is, by its nature, a mu/t/tude of things (manifestly, a multitude of material parts), Leibniz holds that it could only exist insofar as it is, under some description, a multitude of true unities. This conclusion is one of conceptual necessity: that there exist actual multitudes in the world implies that there exist actual unities . More than this, it implies that the compound entities we call "bodies" are, when accurately analyzed in terms of their essence, multitudes of true unities. From this follows the reality of bodies: if monads are real things, and bodies are by nature multitudes of monads, then bodies are (derivatively) real things as well. It is obvious that this...

Un futur au passé. La Révolution dans les Mémoires des Conventionnels

This study makes the most of the Convention members' memoirs and particularly those of the Montagnard deputies and of the regicides who had time during their exile in Brussels to meditate on the Revolution they had just lived through and the part they had played. However varied their attitudes and their ways of living History were, their collective discourse has a real unity in the manner they handle common themes : the weight of circumstance, domestic and foreign war, violence, the Terror, the Girondin - Montagnard struggle, religious policies and the posteriori judgments of Robespierre. These old men relive their personal history, before and during the Revolution and meditate on the failure of the experiment in which they were directly involved, but they continue to have faith in certain essential values which underlie the way they justify themselves.

La formation de la pensée économique de Sieyès d'après ses manuscrits (1770-1789)

A manuscript which was lost for a time, then found and which is now accessible makes it possible to throw new light on Sieyès' economic thought during the period of its development before the revolution. His thought takes on an importance hardly suspected until recently. We find that Sieyès knew a good deal about Adam Smith's thought with which he agrees on several points. He opposes physiocratic ideas and asserts that work alone creates value. This does not bring him to adopt a position of classic economic liberalism, but rather a determined vision of the state and of those who govern as the basic economic regulating device. The political ideas and the economics of the theorist take on real unity and continuity.

WHIMSY III — Western Humor and Irony Membership Serial Yearbook: Proceedings of the 1984 WHIM Conference: Contemporary Humor ed. by Don L. F. Nilsen and Alleen Pace Nilsen (review)

252Rockv Mountain Review contract theory "betrays him occasionally into representing social authority as a more unproblematic reality than . . . he really knows it is" (149). In other words, Dickens usually recognized the problematic nature of social life — an observation very close to the equivocation and ambiguity noted by the other two critics. Magnet's analysis seems derivative at other points as well. For one thing, his description of Oedipal elements in father-son relationships follows Marcus'. As Marcus points out, the apprentice Sim Tappertit aspires to the sexual power held by his surrogate father Gabriel, steals a master key in symbolic transference of that power, and has his legs crushed in a symbolic castration, a retribution for his rebellious behavior (185-86). Magnet makes these same points in his discussion (61-68), and his discussion of Oedipal elements in the relationship between John and Joe Willet also seems based on Marcus'. Second, the most interesting parts of Magnet's thesis seem broadly indebted to Robert E. Lougy's 1972 study of Hard Times, "The Romance of Radical Literature" (Dickens Studies Annual, II, 237-54). Like Magnet, Lougy uses Freud's notion, from Civilization and Its Discontents, that society grinds through a dialectical struggle between two sets of forces: those Thanatos-oriented forces (law, conscience, learned mores) which stabilize yet smother the social order and those Eros-oriented forces (love, imagination) which disrupt yet vivify the social order. According to Lougy, these dynamics move the world of Coketown, and Magnet by coincidence finds Freud's idea an equally handy tool for interpreting the earlier novel. In most cases, Magnet's analysis goes far beyond that of his predecessors; nevertheless he should salute all past views which in any way counterpoint his. Neither Lucas nor Lougy is cited at all. In connection with Barnaby Rudge Marcus receives only a single, unrevealing citation (59; the reference is left out of the index). Yet Magnet finds time to cite Jack Lindsay's leftist reading, a convenient straw man to refute. Boise Slate University MICHAEL CASE DON L. F. NILSEN and ALLEEN PACE MLSEN, eds. WHIMSY III — Western Humor and Irony Membership Serial Yearbook: Proceedings ofthe 1984 WHIM Conference: Contemporary Humor. Tempe, Arizona: WHIM/English Department, Arizona State University, 1985. 287 p. This is a book? Whimsy III: Contemporary Humor seems to be for the most part a transcript of conference proceedings, a common enough genre in the professional and academic world, and as such is hampered in its being a readable book by the very nature of its form — the miscellany. Now if it were a true anthology, or proceedings of a symposium with a genuinely unifying theme, it'd be a far more inviting work to review — and more to the point, to read not only for information and instruction — but for amusement. However, plowing through the almost 300 pages is a task, and even after having scanned, read, and reviewed the collection, I failed to find fundamental focus — real unity. Despite the categories and subcategories and headings, it all seems no more pulled together than a garage sale with too many boxes labeled "miscellaneous"; trying to stuff all this merely under the rubric "contemporary humor" is not enough. But let's approach the fundamental weakness of this collection: first, the act of reading itself is not enjoyable because of deficiencies of graphic design. More vitally, the reading is not enjoyable as an experience: I found too many of the efforts a Book Reviews253 little torpid — and this in a volume titled with studied light-heartedness Whimsy. (Cute.) More, it's subtitled Contemporary Humor. And it isn't funny. This is a "serious" problem — one that has two faces. A number of pieces are indeed "serious" — that is, they are well researched, well thought out, and carefully crafted analyses of what constitutes humor, many of them essays of definition, striving to detail the very essence of the humorous — but the articles are not themselves amusing . Of course, they are scholarly papers, and worthy of respect in terms of the genre, though they sure vary in readability and persuasiveness. Here are some representative examples: Martin Stoneman (Rikki), "The Og Viewpoint: If Today's Humor Isn...

The Politics of Peace: The Role of the Political Covenant in Hobbes's Leviathan

The political covenant in Hobbes's Leviathan involves “more than consent, or concord; it is a real unity … made by covenant of every man with every man.” But is it possible for essentially separate individuals to merge their identity with the sovereign power and, if so, how? It is possible, initially, because each man shares a common desire for peace. However, this desire is “contrary to our natural passions” and is largely ineffectual until, through the device of a political covenant, it acquires the institutional support of the sovereign power. The will to peace is the essence of sovereignty; the establishment of a secure peace is its end. Ideally, the sovereign will operate within the parameters of legitimacy thus established. As a result of the political covenant, man's passions are contained, but the subject also acquires an enhanced ability to order his own actions in accordance with the will to peace.

The Magic in the Pronoun "My"Moral Luck. Bernard Williams

A collection of excellent philosophical papers does not always make an excellent book. That Bernard Williams's new collection does make such a book is the first interesting fact about it. For at one level the topics discussed are of very different kinds: Luck, Justice as a Virtue, Internal and External Reasons, and Wittgenstein and Idealism are not obviously chapter headings from one and the same book. Wherein does the very real unity of Williams's book then consist? It is a negative unity. Each of the essays is relevant in some way to Williams's dissent from and negative evaluation of all attempts to portray the essentially moral standpoint as one of the acknowledgment of impersonal standards which are impartial between persons and which hold, if at all, universally. He is thus equally at odds with any Kantian account of the place of rational universalizability in moral judgment and any utilitarian account which entails that we ought to accord equal weight to each person's preferences in deciding what we ought to do. His arguments often focus upon the specific contentions advanced by particular authors and notably on particular theses propounded by Thomas Nagel and John Rawls, but they are always in fact more generally directed. Indeed if there is a book which more than any other constitutes the thesis to Williams's antithesis it is one published only after these papers had appeared in their original versions, R. M. Hare's Moral Thinking.' If Hare had not existed, Williams should perhaps have seriously considered inventing him. Williams's techniques and methods of argument are, like those of the authors whose specific positions he discusses, those of analytic philosophy. Although he from time to time speaks of and even appeals to personal experience (p. x) he nowhere draws upon and rarely alludes to either Hegelian or phenomenological attempts to characterize such experience. And when he refers to particular moralities embodied in particular social and cultural forms and institutions, it is always without

The Nature of the Virtues

O ne response to the history of Greek and medieval thought about the virtues might well be to suggest that even within that relatively coherent tradition of thought there are just too many different and incompatible conceptions of a virtue for there to be any real unity to the concept or indeed to the history. Homer, Sophocles, Aristotle, the New Testament and medieval thinkers differ from each other in too many ways. They offer us different and incompatible lists of the virtues; they give a different rank order of importance to different virtues; and they have different and incompatible theories of the virtues. If we were to consider later Western writers on the virtues, the list of differences and incompatibilities would be enlarged still further; and if we extended our enquiry to Japanese, say, or American Indian cultures, the differences would become greater still. It would be all too easy to conclude that there are a number of rival and alternative conceptions, but, even within the early Western tradition, no single core conception. The case for such a conclusion could not be better con-